Research Methods Flashcards
Experimental method
Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be lab, field, natural or quasi.
Aim
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study.
Hypothesis
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigating. Stated at the outset of any study.
Directional hypothesis
States the direction of the difference or relationship.
Non directional hypothesis
Doesn’t state the direction.
Variables
Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another.
Independent variable
Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher, or changes naturally, so that the DV can be measured.
Dependent variable
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV.
Operationalisation
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
Extraneous variables
Any variable, other than the independent variable, that may have an effect on the dependent variable if it’s not controlled. EV’s are essentially nuisance variables.
Confounding variables
Any variable, other than the IV that may have effected the DV so we can’t be sure of the true source of changes to the DV.
Demand characteristics
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation.
Investigator effects
Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the DV. This may include the design of the study or the interaction with participants during the research process.
Randomisation
The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.
Standardisation
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.
Experimental design
The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.
Independent groups design
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.
Repeated measures
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.
Matched pairs design
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B.
Random allocation
An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance if being in one condition as any other.
Counterbalancing
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other in the opposite order.
Lab experiment
Takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.
Field experiment
Takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.
Natural experiment
The change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on the DV.
Quasi experiment
The IV has not been determined by anyone, the ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young.
Population
A group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn.
Sample
A group of people who take part in a research investigation. It’s drawn from a population and is presumed to be representative of that population.
Sampling techniques
The method used to select people from the population.
Bias
When certain groups may be over or under represented within the sample selected. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.
Generalisation
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. Only possible if the sample is representative of the population.
Ethical issues
Occurs when a conflict exists between the rights of the participants in research studies and the goals of the research. Informed consent, deception, protection from harm and privacy/confidentiality.
BPS code of ethics
Instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and isn’t acceptable when dealing with participants.
Pilot study
A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real one. It’s to check everything works or to make adjustments if necessary.
Single blind procedure
Participants not told the aim of the research at the beginning. Aims to control demand characteristics.
Double blind procedure
Participants and the researcher who conducts the study isn’t aware of the aim of the research.
Naturalistic observation
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting in which it would normally occur.
Controlled observation
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, where some variables are managed.
Covert observation
Participant is unaware that they are being watched/ recorded. No consent.
Overt observation
Participant is aware that they are being watched/recorded. Give consent.
Participant observation
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
Non participant observation
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
Behavioural categories
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable.
Event sampling
A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.
Time sampling
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time, eg. every 60 seconds.
Self report technique
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic.
Questionnaire
A set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences. Can be open or closed questions.
Open questions
No fixed range of answers. Respondents are able to answer a question in any way they want. Produces qualitative data.
Closed questions
Offers a fixed number of repsonses. Yes/No questions or a scale of numbers. Produces Quantitative data.
Interview
A ‘live’ encounter, face to face or on the phone. Questions may be preset (structured) or may develop as the interview goes along (unstructured interview). Both structured and unstructured (semi-structured interview).
Correlation
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables.
Co-variables
The variables investigates within a correlation, they investigate the association between variables, rather than cause and effect. eg. height and weight.
Positive correlation
Both variables increase. /
Negative correlation
As one variable increases one decreases. \
Zero correlation
No relationship. Points on the graph are scattered.
Qualitative data
Words.
Quantitative data
Numbers
Primary data
Information that has been collected first hand by the researcher.
Secondary data
Information that has already been collected by someone else. Could include national statistics.
Meta analysis
Refers to the process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view.
Descriptive statistics
The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data.
Measures of central tendency
The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data.
Mean
Add all the values in a set of data and divide by the total of values used.
Median
The central value in a set of data when values are arranged from the lowest to highest.
Mode
The most common occurring value in a set of data.
Scattergram
A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis.
Bar chart
A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars.
Measures of dispersion
The general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores.
Range
Subtracting the lowest score from the highest score and adding 1 as a mathematical correction.
Standard deviation
It tells us how much scores deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each score. All the differences are added up and divided by the number of scores.
Normal distribution
A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell shaped pattern. The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak.
Skewed distribution
A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end.
Positive skew
A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the positive side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left.
Negative skew
A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the negative side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right.
Statistical testing
Provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. They tell us whether the differences or relationships between variables are statistically significant or occurred by chance.
Sign test
A statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items.
Peer review
The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality.
Economy
The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services.
Correlation coefficient
A number between -1 and 1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variables.
Case studies
An in depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group or event.
Content analysis
A research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce, eg texts, emails, tv, films.
Coding
The stage of a content analysis in which the communication to be studied is analysed by identifying categories.
Thematic analysis
An inductive and qualitative approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit of explicit ideas within the data.
Reliability
How consistent the findings are. Only reliable if it produces consistent results each time it is used.
Test-retest reliability
A method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire by assessing the same person on 2 different occasions.
Inter-observer reliability
The extent to which there is agreement between 2 or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour.
Validity
The extent to which an observed effect is genuine and can it be generalised beyond the research setting.
Face validity
A basic form of validity. Does it look like it’s measuring what it’s supposed to.
Concurrent validity
The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure.
Ecological validity
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations. A form of external validity.
Temporal validity
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras. A form of external validity.
Statistical test
Used to determine whether a significant difference or correlation exists.
Levels of measurement
Quantitative data can be classified into types or levels of measurement, such as nominal, ordinal and interval.
Chi-squared
A test for association between 2 variables or conditions. Data should be nominal level using an unrelated (independent) design.
Mann-Whitney
A test for a significant difference between two sets of scores. Data should be ordinal level using an unrelated design (repeated measures).
Wilcoxon
A test for a significant difference between 2 sets of scores. Data should be ordinal level using a related design (repeated measures).
Spearman’s rho
A test for correlation when data is at least ordinal level.
Pearson’s r
A parametric test for correlation when it’s at interval level.
Related t-test
A parametric test for difference between 2 sets of scores. Data must be interval with a related design. (repeated measures, matched pairs).
Unrelated t-test
A parametric test for difference between 2 sets of scores. Data must be interval with an unrelated design. (independent groups).
Probability
A measure of the likelihood that a particular event will occur where 0 indicates statistical impossibility 1 statistically certainty.
Significance
A statistical term that tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists. A significant result means that the researcher can reject the null hypothesis.
Critical value
When testing a hypothesis, the numerical boundary or cut off point between acceptance and rejection of the null hypothesis.
Type 1 error
The incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis.
Type 2 error
The failure to reject a false null hypothesis.
Paradigm
A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.
Paradigm shift
The result of a scientific revolution: a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.
Objectivity
When all sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distort or influence the research process.
The empirical method
Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience.
Replicability
The extent to which scientific procedures can be repeated by other researchers.
Falsifiability
The principle that a theory can’t be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue.
