Issues and Debates

Question 1

Gender bias- Universality

Answer 1

Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. Gender bias and culture bias threaten the universality of findings.

Question 2

Gender bias- Alpha bias

Answer 2

This exaggerates or overestimates differences between the sexes. They may enhance or undervalue members of either sex, but typically undervalue females.

Question 3

Gender bias- Beta bias

Answer 3

Ignores, minimises or underestimates differences between men and women. This often occurs when female participants are not included as part of the research process and then it is assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes.

Question 4

Gender bias- Androcentrism

Answer 4

One possible consequence of beta bias is androcentrism. This mean’s it is male centred, when normal behaviour is judged according to a male standard, that means female behaviour is often judged to be abnormal by comparison.

Question 5

Gender bias- evaluation

Answer 5

Gender bias may have damaging consequences which affect the lives of real women. It may provide a scientific ‘justification’ to deny women opportunities within the workplace or society.
Male researchers are more likely to have their work published meaning that psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory/research.

Question 6

Cultural bias- Universality

Answer 6

Many argue that although psychology may claim to have unearthed ‘truths’ that say something about people all over the world, in reality, finding from studies only apply to the particular groups of people who were studied.

Question 7

Cultural bias- Ethnocentrism

Answer 7

Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture. In its extreme form it is the belief in the superiority of one’s own culture which may lead to prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures.
Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation (attachment) is an example of this as it only reflects the norms and values of American culture. It led to misinterpretation of child rearing practices.

Question 8

Cultural bias- Cultural relativism

Answer 8

The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards, can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.

Question 9

Cultural bias- etic approach

Answer 9

Looks at behaviour from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours that are universal

Question 10

Cultural bias- emic approach

Answer 10

Functions from within or inside certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.

Question 11

Cultural bias- imposed etic

Answer 11

Argues that theories and concepts are universal, when they came about through emic research. Mary Ainsworth studies behaviour within a certain culture (America) and then assumed her ideal attachment type could be applied universally.

Question 12

Cultural bias- evaluation

Answer 12

Takano and Osaka found that 14 out of 15 studies compared the USA and Japan found no evidence of the traditional distinction between individualism and collectivism. This could perhaps suggest that cultural bias in research is less of an issue than it once was.

Question 13

Free Will

Answer 13

Suggests that as humans we are essentially self determining and free to choose our thoughts and actions and are not determined by biological or external forces.

Question 14

Determinisim

Answer 14

The view that an individuals behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something. There can be hard or soft determinism.

Question 15

Hard determinism

Answer 15

Suggests that all human behaviour has a cause, and in principle, it should be possible to identify and describe these causes. Free will is not possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal or external events beyond our control.

Question 16

Soft determinism

Answer 16

James, whilst acknowledging that all human action has a cause, soft determinist’s also suggest some room for manoeuvre in that people have conscious mental control over the way they behave.

Question 17

Biological determinism

Answer 17

The belief that behaviour is cause by biological (genetic, hormonal, evolutionary) influences that we can’t control.. For example, the influence of the autonomic nervous system during periods of stress/anxiety. Testosterone in aggressive behaviour.

Question 18

Environmental determinism

Answer 18

The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward and punishment) that we can’t control. Skinner and Locke describe free will as an illusion and argued that all behaviour is the result of conditioning. Our behaviour is shaped by environmental events as well as agents of socialisaton- parents, teachers…

Question 19

Psychic determinism

Answer 19

The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we can’‘t control. Freud agreed that free will is an illusion, but sees human behaviour as determined and directed by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood. Freudian slips.

Question 20

For determinism

Answer 20

It’s consistent with the aims of science. Control of human behaviour has led to the development of treatments, therapies and behavioural interventions that have benefited many. Eg. psychotherapeutic drug treatment for managing schizophrenia. Schizophrenics lose control of their thoughts and behaviour suggests no free will and appears to be deterministic.

Question 21

Against determinism

Answer 21

It’s unfalsifiable, it’s based on the idea that causes of behaviour will always exist, even though they may not have been found yet. The hard deterministic stance that the individual choice is not the cause of behaviour is not consistent with the way that our legal system works- offenders are held morally accountable for their actions.

Question 22

For free will

Answer 22

It makes cognitive sense- face validity- choices we make on any given day. Even if we do not have free will, the fact we think we do may have a positive impact on mind and behaviour. Roberts found that teens who had a strong belief that their lives were decided by events out of their control were significantly greater risk of developing depression.

Question 23

Against free will

Answer 23

Our most basic experiences of free will are decided and determined by our brain before we become aware of them. Libet- found that the activity related to whether to press a button with the left or right hand occurs in the brain 10 seconds before participants report being consciously aware of making such a decision.

Question 24

The nature-nurture debate

Answer 24

Concerned with the extent to which aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited or acquired characteristics.

Question 25

Nature

Answer 25

Descartes- argued that human characteristics and some aspects of knowledge are innate/heredity. However Locke- argued that the mind is a blank slate at birth and then learning/ experience (environment) is later.
Heritability coefficient is used to assess heredity, 0-1. IQ is found to be 0.5 across multiple studies suggesting that both genetics and the environment are important factors in intelligence.

Question 26

Nurture

Answer 26

Lerner- identified different levels of the environment. These may be defined in pre-natal terms- the mothers physical and psychological state during pregnancy or postnatally such as the social conditions the child grows up in and the cultural/historical context they are a part of.

Question 27

The nature-nurture debate- Relative importance of heredity and environment

Answer 27

Nature and nurture are so closely intertwined that its often difficult to separate the two. In twin studies it is often very difficult to tell whether high concordance rates are more the results of shared genetics or shared upbringing.

Question 28

The nature-nurture debate-Relative importance of heredity and environment- The interactionist approach

Answer 28

The idea that nature and nurture are linked to such an extent that it doesn’t make sense to separate the tow, so researchers instead study how they interact and influence each other.

Question 29

The nature-nurture debate- Relative importance of heredity and environment- Diathesis stress model

Answer 29

Suggest that psychopathology is caused by a biological/genetic vulnerability which is only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental trigger. Pikka found that in a group of Finnish adoptees, those most likely to develop schizophrenia had biological relatives with a history of the disorder and had dysfunctional relationships with their adoptive families.

Question 30

The nature- nurture debate- Relative importance of heredity and environment- Epigenetics

Answer 30

Refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing our genetic code. It is a process that happens throughout life and is caused by interaction with the environment. Smoking, diet and pollution leave epigenetic marks on our DNA. Can be passed on.
Dias and Ressler- shocked rats every time they smelt a chemical, their children and grandchildren feared the smell, even though they had never been exposed to it before or received any shocks.

Question 31

The nature- nurture debate- evaluation (nativists/empiricists)

Answer 31

Nativists suggest that our inherited genetic make up determines our characteristics and behaviour and the environment has little input.
Empiricists suggest that any behaviour can be changed by changing the environmental conditions. Desirable behaviour selectively reinforced, undesirable behaviour punished/ignored. This may lead one to advocate a model of society that controls and manipulates it’s citizens using these techniques.

Question 32

The nature-nurture debate- evaluation (shared and unshared environments)

Answer 32

Dunn and Plomin suggests that individual differences such as age, temperament would mean that a life event such as parental divorce would have a different meaning to each sibling. This would explain the finding that even MZ twins reared together do not show perfect concordance rates , which supports heredity and the environment can’t be separated.

Question 33

The nature-nurture debate- evaluation (constructivism)

Answer 33

An aggressive child is likely to feel more comfortable around children who show similar behaviors and will choose this environment. This environment then affects their development. Plomin- it is impossible and illogical to try separate nature and nurture influences on the child’s behaviour.

Question 34

Holism and reductionism

Answer 34

Holism- an argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts. Analyses the person or behaviour as a whole.
Reductionism- The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts.

Question 35

Holism and reductionism- Levels of explanation in psychology

Answer 35

There are different ways of viewing the same phenomena in psychology, some are more reductionist than others. The holism/reductionism asks whether it is more appropriate to look at one level specifically or whether more than one level is appropriate. Social groups/family, cognition/emotion, genetics, cellular biology, biochemistry.

Question 36

Holism and reductionism- Biological reductionism

Answer 36

Based on the premise that we are all biological organisms made up of physiological structures and processes, so all behaviour is at some level biological, so can be explained through neurochemical, neurophysiological, evolutionary and genetic influences. OCD, schizophrenia might be possible to explain at a biochemical level.

Question 37

Holism and reductionism- Environmental reductionism

Answer 37

The attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience.

Question 38

For Holism

Answer 38

The effects of conformity to social roles and the de-individuation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison experiment couldn’t be understood by studying the participants as individuals, it was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important. This shows that holistic explanations provide a more complete/global understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches.

Question 39

Against Holism

Answer 39

`Holistic explanations can become vague and not have rigorous scientific testing. For example, humanistic perspective takes a holistic approach to behaviour, it tends to be criticised for it’s lack of empirical evidence, so it’s instead seen as a rather loose set of concepts. Higher level explanations that combine many perspectives, may find it hard to figure out which perspective to use as a basis of therapy. This suggests in real life application, lower level explanations may be more appropriate.

Question 40

For Reductionism

Answer 40

Forms the basis of scientific research to create operationalised variables necessary to break target behaviours down into constituent parts. This means it can conduct experiments/observations in a way that is meaningful and reliable. Gives psychology greater credibility.

Question 41

Against Reductionism

Answer 41

Reductionist approaches have been accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena leading to a loss of validity. It can only ever form part of an explanation.

Question 42

Idiographic

Answer 42

Mean’s private or personal. An approach to research that focuses more on the unique individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour. Eg. qualitative data- case studies, unstructured interviews, self report.

Question 43

Nomothetic

Answer 43

The nomothetic approach attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws. These provide a benchmark which people can be compared, classified and measured.

Question 44

Examples of the idiographic approach in psychology

Answer 44

The humanistic approach- Rogers and Maslow were only interested in documenting the conscious experience of the individual/self. The psychodynamic approach can also be seen as idiographic because of Freud’s case studies, however Freud also assumed he had identified universal laws of behaviour and personality development (nomethetic).

Question 45

Examples of the nomothetic approach in psychology

Answer 45

Behaviourist, cognitive and biological would be nomothetic. Skinner used rats, cats, pigeons to develop the laws learning. Biological- brain scans. Must have scientific methods of investigation.

Question 46

For idiographic

Answer 46

Provides a complete and global account of the individual due to it’s in depth qualitative methods. This may shed further light on general laws or challenging laws. Eg, a single case may generate hypotheses for further study. May contribute to our overall under standing, like HM with brain damaged individuals.

Question 47

Against idiographic

Answer 47

Freud based his key concepts like the oedipus comples off one case study, Little Hans. Meaningful generalisations can’t be made without further examples, as there is no adequate baseline to compare behaviour. Case studies tend to be the least scientific as it’s based on subjective interpretation of the researcher meaning it’s open to bias.

Question 48

For nomothetic

Answer 48

Tend to be more scientific- tested under standardised conditions, statistical analysis, prediction and control. These processes have enabled psychologists to establish norms of typical behaviour such as the average IQ of 100, giving it greater scientific credibility.

Question 49

Against nomothetic

Answer 49

Looses the whole person within psychology. Lab studies involving tests such as memory, participants are treated as a series of scores rather than individual people and their subjective experience of the situation is ignored.

Question 50

Ethical implications of research studies and theory

Answer 50

Ethical implications are the impact that psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people especially participants. Ethical guidelines were established to help protect those in research. What may be more difficult to guard against is the social impact of research once it has been conducted. Researchers may have little say in how they are represented in the media which may influence our perception of particular groups in society.

Question 51

Ethical implications- Socially sensitive research

Answer 51

Sieber and Stanley- Studies in which there are potentially consequences or implications, either directly for the participant in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research.
Studies that tackle taboo topics such as race or sexuality, attract attention from the media and public, however psychologists should shy away from research that may be socially sensitive.

Question 52

Ethical issues in socially sensitive research

Answer 52

Sieber and Stanley identified a number or concerns that researchers should be mindful of when conducting socially sensitive research:
Implications- the wider effects of the research should be carefully considered but it may be difficult to predict at the time.
Uses/public policy- what is the research likely to be used for? And what would happen if it was used for the wrong purpose? such as adopted by the government to shape public policy.
The validity of the research- some research may be fraudulent or highly suspect. However many modern researchers are much more up front about their own biases/preconceptions.

Question 53

Ethical implications- evaluation

Answer 53

Benefits of sensitive research- Scarr- argues that studies of underrepresented groups and issues may promote a greater sensitivity and understanding of these, which can help reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance.
The way that research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way in which findings are interpreted, so must have an open mind when researching.
Socially sensitive research has been used by the government to shape social policy.