Gender

Question 1

Sex

Answer 1

The biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy. (reproductive organs, body shape, hair growth.) Sex is innate and the result of nature.

Question 2

Gender

Answer 2

The psychological and cultural differences between males and females including attitudes, behaviours and social roles. Partly environmentally determined and therefore due to nurture.

Question 3

Sex-role stereotype

Answer 3

A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males and females in a given society.

Question 4

Gender identity disorder

Answer 4

When their biologically prescribed sex does not reflect the way they feel inside and the gender they identify themselves as being.

Question 5

The unusual case of the Batista boys

Answer 5

Imperato-McGinley et al- 4 children within the family were identified and raised as girls from birth. During puberty they changed into males. (testicles appeared and they grew normal sized penises. They missed a crucial chemical step in the womb, which meant their male genitalia was internal. Puberty produced this chemical later so they externalised. They quickly adapted to their new roles as boys/men meaning gender identity may be flexible.

Question 6

Androgyny

Answer 6

Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in one’s personality. Someone who can’t be clearly identified as male or female

Question 7

Measuring androgyny- The BEM sex role inventory (BSRI)

Answer 7

A scale where 20 characteristics that would be commonly identified as masculine (aggressive), 20 characteristics commonly identified as feminine (gentle) and 20 characteristics that are neutral traits. The respondents are required to rate themselves on a 7 point rating scale. 1 is never true of me and 7 is always true of me. The scores then add up and put someone as masculine, androgynous or feminine.

Question 8

Androgyny and the BSRI- evaluation

Answer 8

High test-retest reliability- The BSRI was developed by asking 50 male and 50 female judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how desirable they were for males and females. The highest scorers in each category became the 20 for each category. The BSRI was then piloted on 1000 participants and it broadly corresponded with their own description of their identity. A follow up study with a smaller sample of the same students revealed similar results a month later.
It oversimplifies a complex concept- gender identity is too complex to be reduced to a single score, in order to understand it more fully, a person’s interests and perception of their own abilities should be included.

Question 9

Androgyny and the BSRI- evaluation extra

Answer 9

The BSRI was developed over 40 years ago and behaviours that are regarded as acceptable within gender have changed significantly since then. This may mean Bem’s scale lacks temporal validity. The questions in the categories were also chosen by people from the US so this may not be shared across all cultures and societies.

Question 10

Chromosomes

Answer 10

Found in the nucleus of living cells carrying information in the form of genes. The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines biological sex.

Question 11

Hormone

Answer 11

A chemical substance circulated in the blood that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs.

Question 12

Testosterone

Answer 12

A hormone from the androgen group that is produced mainly in the male testes and in really small amounts in the female ovaries. Associated with aggression.
Van de Poll et al- injected female rats with testosterone and they became more physically and sexually agressive.

Question 13

Oestrogen

Answer 13

The primary female hormone, playing an important role in the menstrual cycle and reproductive system.

Question 14

Oxytocin

Answer 14

A hormone which causes contraction of the uterus during labour and stimulates lactation.

Question 15

The role of chromosomes

Answer 15

Females are XX and males are XY. The baby will be a boy if the sperm carries the Y chromosome.

Question 16

The role of hormones

Answer 16

Gender development comes from the influence of hormones. In the womb, hormones act upon brain development and cause development of the reproductive organs. At puberty, hormonal activity triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics (pubic hair).

Question 17

The role of chromosomes and hormones evaluation- evidence supporting

Answer 17

It’s supported by the case of David Reimer. Also Dabbs et al found that in a prison, offenders with the highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes. This suggests that sex hormones do influence gender related behaviours.

Question 18

The role of chromosomes and hormones evaluation- contradictory evidence

Answer 18

In a double blind study, Tricker et al, 43 males were given either a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo. No significant differences in aggression were found after the 10 week period between the 2 groups.

Question 19

Case of David Reimer

Answer 19

Twin boys called bruce and brian. Bruce had a botched circumcision at the age of 6 months and was left without a penis. Money a psychologist was developing his theory on gender neutrality and told the Reimers to raise Bruce (now Brenda) as a stereotypical girl. In her teens she never adjusted to life as a female, she had severe psychological and emotional problems. When she was finally told the truth, she immediately went back to living as a man, then committed suicide later on.

Question 20

Atypical sex chromosome patterns

Answer 20

Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY fomation. Tends to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms.

Question 21

Klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 21

A syndrome affecting males in which an individual has an extra X chromosome (XXY). Characterised by reduced body hair, breast development, long gangly limbs, underdeveloped genitals and infertile testes. They may have poorly developed language skills/reading ability. May also be shy.

Question 22

Turner’s syndrome

Answer 22

A chromosomal disorder in which affected women only have one X chromosome (XO) causing women to not have a menstrual cycle, no ovaries (infertile), no breasts, low set ears, webbed neck. Have a higher ability of reading. Memory and maths tasks are lower ability. Find it difficult to fit in.

Question 23

Atypical sex chromosome patterns- evaluation

Answer 23

Practical application- 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome showed that those who had been identified and and treated from a young age has significant benefits compared to a diagnosis in adulthood. This suggests increased awareness has practical application.
Environmental explanations- social immaturity in women (turners syndrome) may be due to them being treated immaturely.

Question 24

Cognitive explanations: Kohlberg’s theory- stage 1

Answer 24

Gender identity- Around the age of 2, children can correctly identify themselves as a boy or girl. At the age of 3, most can identify other people as male or female. They are not aware that sex is permanent. A boy may say “when i grow up, i will be a mummy”.

Question 25

Kohlberg’s theory- stage 2

Answer 25

Gender stability- At the age of 4 they realise they will always be the same gender. They are often confused by external changes in appearance, for example, they may describe a man with long hair as a woman.

Question 26

Kohlberg’s theory- stage 3

Answer 26

Gender constancy- final stage of development at around age 6. Children recognise that gender remains constant and consistent. No longer fooled by changes in outward appearance. But they may regard a man wearing a dress as strange or unusual but they still know it’s a man.

Question 27

Kohlberg’s theory- imitation of role models

Answer 27

In the gender constancy stage they seek out gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate.

Question 28

Cognitive explanations: Kohlberg’s theory- evaluation

Answer 28

Evidence supporting the sequence of stages- Slaby and Frey- children were presented with a split screen images of males and females performing the same tasks, younger children roughly spent the same time looking at both sexes. Children in the gender constancy stage spent most their time looking at their own sex model.
Kohlberg’s theory was developed using interviews,the youngest children may have lacked vocabulary to express their understanding.

Question 29

Cognitive explanations: Gender schema theory

Answer 29

Martin and Halverson’s theory- argues that children’s understanding of gender increases with age. Use schemas related to gender from experience.

Question 30

Gender schema theory- gender schema aquired with gender identity

Answer 30

A gender schema is a generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and gender appropriate behaviour. Once a child has established gender identity (2-3 years old), the child will begin to search the environment for information that encourages development of gender schema. This contradicts Kohlbergs as he says its around age 7 in the gender constancy stage.

Question 31

Gender schema theory- schema direct behaviour and self understanding

Answer 31

Schema expand to include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits. Usually formed from stereotypes, which provide a framework. By the age of 6, the child has a rather fixed and stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for its gender.

Question 32

Gender schema theory- ingroups and outgroups.

Answer 32

Children tend to have a much better understanding of the schema’s that are appropriate to their own gender (ingroup). Showing that they pay more attention to information relevant to their gender identity.

Question 33

Cognitive explanations: Gender schema theory- evaluation

Answer 33

Evidence supporting- Martin and Little found that children under the age of 4, who showed no signs of gender stability or constancy demonstrated strongly sex-typed behaviours and attitudes. This contradicts Kohlberg’t theory but it is consistent with the predictions of gender schema theory.
This theory can account for the fact that young children tend to hold very fixed and rigid gender attitudes. Information that conflicts existing schema’s are ignored . (woman working on building site).

Question 34

Psychodynamic explanation of gender development- Freud’s psychoanalytic theory (pre-phallic children)

Answer 34

The third stage, phallic stage is when gender development occurs. Before this stage, children have no concept of gender identity. Freud described these children as being bisexual as they are neither masculine or feminine. In the phallic stage pleasure is in the genitals and children either experience the Oedipus complex or the Electra complex. These stages are crucial in the formation of identity.

Question 35

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory- Oedipus complex

Answer 35

In the phallic stage, boys develop feelings for their mother. They are jealous and hatred towards the father but they realise that the father is more powerful and get castration anxiety. The boy then gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with the father.

Question 36

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory- Electra complex

Answer 36

In the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy, seeing the mother in competition for their fathers love. Hate the mother as they are in competition and they also feel like the mum castrated her. They then substitute this penis envy for the desire to have children (identifying with the mother).

Question 37

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory- Identification and internalisation

Answer 37

Both sexes identify with the same sex parent to resolve their complexes. This involves taking on board the gender identity of the same sex parent. Both boys and girls then receive a second hand gender identity at the end of the phallic stage.

Question 38

Little Hans

Answer 38

Hans was a 5 year old boy with a fear of being bitten by horses. Han’s fear stemmed from an incident where he saw a horse collapse and die in the street. However, Freud believed that Han’s fear of being bitten represented his fear of castration. And suggested that Han’s had transferred his fear on his father onto horses by displacement.

Question 39

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory- evaluation

Answer 39

Freud would have believed that being raised in a non nuclear family would have adverse effects on a child’s gender development. Evidence doesn’t support this, Golombok et al demonstrated how children from single parent families went on to develop normal gender identities.
Freud’s theory’s are pseudoscientific due to the unconscious nature and lack of scientific rigour.
Research doesn’t support the Oedipus complex- Other research says that boys with liberal fathers tend to be more secure in their masculine identity (Blakemore and Hill) which is opposite to Freud.

Question 40

SLT applied to gender development- Direct reinforcement

Answer 40

Children are more likely to be praised/reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is gender appropriate. Boys may be encouraged to engage in rough play and punished for being gentle. This is called differential reinforcement. Through differential reinforcement, they learn their gender identity.

Question 41

SLT applied to gender development- Indirect reinforcement (vicarious)

Answer 41

If a little girl see’s her mother being complimented for putting on make up and a pretty dress, the girl may try to replicate this when she is able. If a boy sees a male classmate being teased for showing feminine behaviour, the behaviour is unlikely to be copied.

Question 42

SLT applied to gender development- Identification and modelling

Answer 42

Identification to a role model. Modelling the behaviour. For example, a mum may model stereotypical roles such as tidying the house. Or a girl may copy her mother setting the table, or feeding her doll using a toy bottle.

Question 43

SLT applied to gender development- Mediational processes

Answer 43

Attention (paying close attention), Retention (remembering the skills), Motivation (compliments), Motor reproduction (being capable to do it).

Question 44

SLT applied to gender development- evaluation

Answer 44

Supporting evidence- Smith and Lloyd- 4-6 month old babies, half the time they were dressed in boys clothes and got given a hammer rattle, the other half of the time they were dressed in girls clothes and got given a cuddly toy. The girls got told they were pretty. This suggest that gender appropriate behaviour is stamped in at an early age.
Less of a clear cut distinction on stereotypes now, new acceptable gender behaviour, suggests it’s social not biological.

Question 45

The influence of culture on gender roles- Cultural differences

Answer 45

Mead on tribal groups of New Guinea, The arapesh were gentle and responsive.(western feminine). The Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile (western masculine). And the Tchambuli women were dominant and the males passive (opposite of western stereotype). This suggests that there isn’t a direct biological relationship between gender and sex, and that they’re culturally determined.

Question 46

The influence of culture on gender roles- Cultural similarities

Answer 46

Buss found consistent patterns in male preference in 37 countries across all continents. Males looked for youth and attractiveness and females looked for wealth and resources in a potential partner.

Question 47

The influence of culture on gender roles- evaluation

Answer 47

Imposed etic- Westerners do research and assume that western ways of doing research are assumed to be universal, may be meaningless when transferred to other cultures.
Mead’s research has been criticised for not separating her own opinions from her description of Samoan life (observer bias) and for making sweeping generalisations based on a relatively short period of study.

Question 48

The influence of media on gender roles- Rigid stereotypes

Answer 48

Furnham and Farragher found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles, where as women were often seen occupying familial roles. This suggests that the media play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning male and female behaviour.

Question 49

The influence of media on gender roles- Information giving

Answer 49

Evidence shows that children who have more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display more gender stereotypical views in their behaviour and attitudes. (McGhee and Freuh).

Question 50

The influence of media on gender roles- evaluation

Answer 50

It is difficult to establish cause and effect in these studies. It may be that the media output reflects social norms. Also control groups can’t be used as the majority of children are exposed to the media.
Counter-stereotypes- Disney movie Brave.

Question 51

Atypical Gender Development- Gender Identity Disorder (GID)

Answer 51

A minority experience a mismatch between their biological sex and the sex they feel that they are. Feel discomfort with their own assigned sex.

Question 52

Atypical Gender Development- Biological explanations

Answer 52

Brain sex theory suggests that GID is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a person’s biological sex. Heylens et al compared 23 MZ twins and 21 DZ twins where one of each pair was diagnose with GID. 39% of the MZ twins were concordant, compared to none of the DZ twins, shows genetic factors in the development of GID.

Question 53

Atypical Gender Development- Social-psychological explanations- Psychoanalytic theory

Answer 53

Based on Freudian theory. Ovesey and Person- argued that GID in males is caused by the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. They then adopt the mothers gender identity.

Question 54

Atypical Gender Development- Social-psychological explanations- Cognitive explanations

Answer 54

Liben and Bigler- proposed an extension of the gender schema theory that empathises individual differences in gender identity. This theory suggests 2 ways of gender development. The first way- gender schemas. The second way- gender attitudes are affected by his/her activity (if a boy plays with dolls he might see it as a boy and girl activity). This leads to androgynous behaviour and a flexible attitude to behaviour.

Question 55

Atypical Gender Development- evaluation

Answer 55

Twin studies are inconclusive- not very high concordance rates (39% for MZ twins). Its very difficult to separate nature and nurture in these investigations. GID is rare, twin studies may not be generalizable due to sample size.
The biological explanations oversimplify a complex concept.