Research Methods 2

Question 1

what is a case study

Answer 1

•In depth analysis of a group, individual or event
•includes production of qualitative data
•construct a case history
•longitudinal may involve data from family and friends

Question 2

what is a content analysis

Answer 2

•type of observational research studied indirectly through communications
•eg spoken (speeches), written (texts), media (books)
•aim is to summarise and describe communication in a systematic way so conclusions can be drawn

Question 3

Case studies A03

Answer 3

•offer rich, detailed insights that shed light on unusual and atypical forms of behaviour, eg HM- typical memory processing, no demand characteristics
•Generalisation is an issue for small sample, info to final report based on subjective selection of researcher, accounts from family may b inaccurate, low in validity

Question 4

Content analysis A03

Answer 4

•circumnavigate many ethical issues bc material already exists so no permission needed, high external validity, flexible produces quantitive and qualitative
•studied indirectly, out of context, subjective, reflexivity aims to address bias

Question 5

Thematic analysis steps

Answer 5

1. Familiarise
2. Initial codes
3. Search for themes
4. review themes
5. define and name themes
6. produce report

Question 6

Coding steps

Answer 6

*Data is categorised into meaningful units and then analysed by counting

Question 7

Reliability A01

Answer 7

•consistency
•same measure every time
•same results on different days

Question 8

Ways of assessing reliability

Answer 8

•test-retest: same test to same person on different days, used with questionnaires, personality tests and interviews, time to not recall answer but time to not change opinion, scores compared
•inter-observer: relevant to observational research(subjectivity, bias) observers compare data in pilot study or end of actual study make sure behavioural categories are consistently applied

Question 9

Measuring reliability

Answer 9

two sets of scores should correlate at least +0.8 for reliability

Question 10

Improving reliability A03

Answer 10

•questionnaires: low test-rest, items may need to be changed to closed questions so less ambiguous
•interviews: avoid leading or ambiguous questions and interviewers are trained (structured interviews)
•observations: behavioural categories operationalised (not overlap), more training
•experiments: standardised, ensure consistency when testing different ppts

Question 11

Validity

Answer 11

•whether test produces legitimate result which represents behaviour in real world
•genuine
•can produce reliable data which is not valid

Question 12

Types of validity

Answer 12

•internal: measure what they intend to measure, effects are due to manipulation of IV, threat = demand characteristics
•external: finding generalised, type=ecological which means findings generalised from one setting to another (everyday), mundane realism of task affect ecological
•temporal: findings true over time

Question 13

ways of assessing validity

Answer 13

•face validity: test measures what it’s supposed to on the face of it, expert checks measuring instrument
•concurrent: results match another well established test, close agreement=high

Question 14

improving validity

Answer 14

•experiments: control group (checks internal), standardised procedures(demand characteristics and researcher bias) , single and double blind procedures
•questionnaires: lie scale, anonymity reduce social desirability bias
•observations: covert so behaviour authentic, well defined behavioural categories
•qualitative: depth and detail, triangulation number of different sources (interpretive validity)

Question 15

null hypotheses

Answer 15

• no difference between conditions , statistical tests determine whether this should be accepted or rejected

Question 16

Rule of R

Answer 16

any test with R has to have a calculated value same or gReater then 0.05
any test without has to have a calculated value same or less than 0.05

Question 17

Type 1 and 2 errors

Answer 17

type 1: false positive, null rejected and alternative accepted but should’ve been other way round, occurs when significant level is too lenient
type 2: false negative, null accepted and alternative rejected but should’ve been other way round,occurs when significant level is too stringent

Question 18

Statistical test abbreviation

Answer 18

Carrots (chi-squared), Should (sign test), Come (chi-squared), Mashed (Mann-Whitney), With (Wilcoxon), Swede (Spearman’s Rho), Under (unrelated t-test), Roast (related t-test), Potatoes (Pearsons r)

Question 19

3 things to consider when choosing statistical test

Answer 19

1. Difference or correlation, ‘correlation ‘= association
2. Experimental design, related or unrelated .
3. Level of measurement, nominal, ordinal, interval

Question 20

What are the parametric tests

Answer 20

T-tests and pearsons r

Question 21

Features of science : Paradigms and paradigm shifts

Answer 21

Scientific subjects have a shared set of assumption (Kuhn) and a scientific revolution occurs when there is a paradigm shift.
*he suggests psychology lack universally accepted paradigms, internal disagreement through conflicting approaches so it is a prescience
*progress=scientific revolution, contradictory evidence causes paradigm shift
*example, Newtonian paradigms in physics towards einsteins theory of relativity

Question 22

Theory construction and hypothesis testing

Answer 22

*theory = set of general laws that explain events/ behaviour
Theory construction = gathering evidence via direct observation
*can be scientifically tested, suggesting a number of possible hypotheses that can be tested using systematic , objective methods to support or refute
*former theory = strengthen , latter = revisited
* deriving new hypothesis from existing theory is deduction

Question 23

Falsifiability

Answer 23

Popper: theories should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and possibility of being proven false
*repeatedly and successfully tested means it’s not been proven false not that it’s true
*psuedoscience cannot be falsified
*survivors of falsifying are strongest ,
*alternative hypothesis accompanied by a null hypothesis

Question 24

Replicability

Answer 24

*theories are to be trusted, findings repeated across different contexts and circumstances
*replication determines reliability and assesses validity
*repeating study over different contexts we see if findings can be generalised
*psychologist should report investigations with much precision and rigour as possible, so others can verify

Question 25

Objectivity and empirical method

Answer 25

*maintain objectivity, critical distance during research
* avoid personal opinions and biases to discolour the data they collect/ influence behaviour of ppts
*lab experiments =most control and objectivity
*objectivity is the basis of empirical method (sensory experience)
*experimental and observational method= empirical
*Locke says theories cannot be scientific without empirical test and verification

Question 26

Sections of a scientific report

Answer 26

*abstract: short summary with major elements (aim, hypothesis, method, results and conclusion) to identify studies worth of further examination
*introduction: literature review of general area, including relevant theories, logical progression (Broad to specifics of aim and hypotheses)
*method: enough detail for others to replicate precisely including design, sample (sampling method and target population), apparatus, procedures in a recipe style list and how ethics were addresses
*results: summarise key findings , descriptive statistics (tables), inferential (statistical test) and any raw data in appendix, if used qualitative methods results include analysis of themes
*discussion: summarise results in verbal, link to previous research, limitations and wider implications
*referencing, list of sources

Question 27

Reference to journal, book and web

Answer 27

*Author, date, article title, journal name, volume, of number
*Author, date, title of book, place of publisher
*Source, data, title, weblink and date accessed