research methods Flashcards
pervert
practical
ethical
reliable
valid
examples
representative
theoretical
the research process:aim
the purpose of the research. Usually decided by the academic researcher but sometimes it is decided by the company that the reseacher is working for
the research process:literature review
to summarise and analyse the existing literature about the aim or topic so that researchers are not repeating ideas
the research process:hypothesis
the prediction about the outcome of the research. More likely to be assigned to quantitative research
the research process:pilot studies
a small scale version of the research which is usually undertaken if there is a large research population to check for any issues or initial patterns
validity:
is this research true to life?
reliable data is not always valid. Respondents may lie, forget, exaggerate, give answers that they think is socially acceptable or if it is a long term investigation they may change their mind
reliability:
can it be repeated for consistent results?
To ensure reliability the researcher must operationalise concept-defining a concept precisely so that it can be easily understood.
representative:
needs to be representative of the population as a whole- different ages,genders,classes and ethnic groups so that it can be generalised to wider society
objectivity:
avoiding bias-the fact maintains that position regardless of context or situation
subjectivity:
the value judgements that are inherent in a piece of research- will be dependent on context or the perspective. Interpretivist data is often subjective as it looks for the meanings and emotions which are part of society.
reflexibility:
the ability to reflect on your own bias/subjectivity in order to mitigate this influencing your research
primary data
its always brand new and up to date
some primary methods can be expensive and time consuming and could put the researcher in a dangerous or be unethical. There are more practical issues like time funding and accesibility
secondary data:
very quick and easy to collate and usually has not ethical concerns. Allows for the comparison of past and present events and societies. May not be reliable or valid and could be limited. They could not be authentic,representative or credible. Double bias is possible
positivism
believe that sociology should be scientific and analyse social facts (affect behaviour and are easily measured-external like laws). They believe it is possible to test a hypothesis and look for cause and effect or trends over time.
questionnaires,statistics,lab experiments
quantitative data
measured by positivists. Numbers and statistics which are easily put into a graph or chart and are easy to analyse. It can be easily repeated to test for reliability and allows for large sample sizes for reprehensibility.
interpretivism
believe you can only understand human behaviour using empathy. They explore the meanings, motives, and reasons behind behaviour and social interaction. They suggest that there is not such thing as social facts-lived experience is more important.
qualitative data
interpretivists. It is rich and detailed and allows the researcher to build a rapport with the participants to allow for a valid and detailed picture of what they think. It is a subjective method as it involves making value judgements about the social world.
critiques of interpretivism
can be difficult to repeat-not very reliable. Tend to involve small scale research such as focus groups or case studies-not representative. They can be very time consuming(practicality). Answers are subjective and open to interpretation so the researcher may misinterpret the data
critiques of positivism
some people believe that numerical data can hide reality (closed questions may be difficult to understand or may not allow for other categories). It may lack depth and insight into social interaction as it ignores the meanings,motives and reasons. Even official statistics can be politically biased.
practical constraints
time- affects sample size!, participants are less likely to want to take part in a long term study
money- money for resources involved in collecting the data-participants less willing if they have to travel etc
access-may not have access to some groups due to safeguarding or ethical concerns so they need to gain informed consent from a gatekeeper.
triangulation
combining different research methods to compensate to any draw backs of any of the methods. Increases validity but can be very expensive and time consuming.
ethical considerations
consent
confidentiality
deception
debrief
withdrawal
surveys
collect info. about a large target population
they are a process which can use surveys or questionnaires
positivists-quantitative data
data analysed to discover patterns and trends
very reliable
representative sampling methods
random sampling
multi stage sampling-choosing participants in layers
stratified random sampling-random selection from each stratum in the hierarchy
quota-a certain quota in each bracket but not completely random eg approaching people who look nice
systematic-choosing a random starting point then selecting every nth value
non representative sampling
snowball-finding initial contacts then getting them to introduce you to more contacts that they know
opportunity-when data needs to be collected easily and quickly the researcher will go to an event where people are already gathered
questionnaires
one of the most common methods due to their ease of use
reliable
quantitative data
may use pilot studies to ensure the language is easy for respondents
closed question questionnaires
respondent has to choose from a limited range of responses Likert scale
imposition problem-risk that the research might be imposing their view or framework resulting in lack of validity
strengths of questionnaires
p:easy to administer& collect lots of data quickly
p:can be conducted anonymously-good for sensitive topics
e:easy to gain informed consent and guarantee anonymity
r:closed questionnaires are standardised+easily repeatable-all respondents have the same questions(reliability)
r:large sample sizes are easy to obtain-more representative and generalisable
t:positivists-quantitative data
weaknesses of questionnaires
p:can have low response rates
r:for self-completion questionnaires it is not possible to ensure that it was completed in the same circumstances-less standardised &repeatable
v:people may not tell the truth-questions may be misleading or mean different things to do different people
r:they often have a low response rate-may not be representative as those with strong views on a matter will respond
t: interpretivists argue that the data lacks validity-doesn’t allow us to gain verstehen
positives of unstructured interviews
e:few ethical concerns
v:high in validity
t:interpretivist prefer it as it is high in validity and allows verstehen to be gained
t:feminist prefer as it gives female participants more control
negatives of unstructured interviews
p:interviewer needs to have a background in sociology so recognise an important point
p:interviewers need good interpersonal skills
r:each interview is unique-difficult to replicate
v:interaction can result in interview bias - interviewer may ask leading bias
r:more time consuming-sample sizes tend to be smaller- effects representativeness
structured interviews
have a fixed interview schedule which are asked in a particular order and asked in the same way. This is standardised which produces data which can be quantified and repeated-reliability
positives of structured interviews
p:easily standardised and repeatable
v:less of a problem with interviewer bias-asking the same questions in the same way
r:generally have a higher response rate-may not be representative
negatives of structured interviews
e:not suitable for highly sensitive topics as there is not opportunity to gain a rapport with the interviewee
v:closed questions restrict interviewees from saying what they want to say- less valid
t:feminists see them as patriarchal. Positivists like them as they produce quantitative data
unstructured interviews:
informal with no set structure allowing for more flexibility.
Results in qualitative data and increased validity due to it reflecting a a natural situation
particularly useful for sensitive subjects
smaller sample sizes-less representative
verstehen
observation
qualitative
overt or covert
overt observation
the participants know they are being observed
eg Willis
focus groups:
a small sample carrying out an observed conversation
often used for market research
highly valid-reflects natural scenario
qualitative data
covert observation
participants don’t know that they are being observed
should only be done when no other option is available eg. Nigel Fielding used covert observation to investigate the National Front
participant observation
they are considered both high risk and high gain
the researcher becomes a part of the group they are studying
strengths of participant observation
v: researcher is actively involved-close up perspective
v:allows research into the workings of deviant groups
v:if its covert people cannot mislead the researcher
t:Interpretivists prefer as they produce qualitative data-rich in detail, provides first hand insight into natural behaviour in real-life settings
weaknesses of participant observation
e:ethical and practical problems of getting in and out of the group
e:covert-the researcher may be put in danger or be forced to participate in illegal acts
r:lacks reliability-cannot be repeated and subjective data may not always be recorded accurately
v:the researcher may become too involved and may struggle to stand back and objectively observe the group
v:overt observation may influence the behaviour of the group(Hawthorne effect)
r:not representative
non participant observation
the researcher observes the group from a distance
strengths of non participant observation
t:more likely to be favoured by positivists as the researcher can be more objective
e:if you want to observe deviant groups you have to be very inconspicuous
weaknesses of non participant observation
p:observing from a distance can be very difficult-not close to the action
v:overt research may influence the behaviour of the group(Hawthorne effect)
lab experiments
quantitative
hypothetical-deductive method
researcher uncovers human behaviour in controlled environments
begins with a hypothesise, changes the IV observes the effect on the DV
results are turned into numbers which can be analysed
the hawthorne effect
participants may try harder when they know they are being observed in order to appear in good light- affects the validity
negatives of laboratory experiment
e:it may be difficult to get the informed consent of groups like children or people with learning difficulties who may not understand the experiments meaning
v:a laboratory is not a natural environment-likely that any behaviour in these spaces is also unnatural or artificial
r:sample sizes are smaller-limiting representativeness
t:interpretivists argue that humans have free will so therefore an individuals behaviour can not be explained in terms of cause and effect
field experiments
taking place in real social settings and they are unaware they are being studied
used by interpretivists as the natural settings allow for natural meanings and motives to affect behaviour
they do not try to control all of the variables
increased validity
positives of field experiments
v:highly valid as its in natural settings-they can show the hidden meanings in the social world
t:interpretivists are in favour because they acknowledge human behaviour and acknowledges the differences between individuals
negatives of field experiments
e:there is ethical issues as the people being studied cant give informed consent
r:they are not reliable as the researcher cannot control the variables like they could in a lab
v:the Hawthorne Effect can be a risk if they know they are being observed
r:they are often small-scale and so are unrepresentative
case studies
detailed investigations of a specific person,group or institution
interpretivists
negatives of case studies
p:case studies are unique and access to these cases can be limited
e:in cases like Genie she could not give consent
e:circumstances leading to case studies are usually quite sensitive in nature
r:reliability and representativeness is limited
positives case studies
v:they are in depth so have strong verstehen and validity
t:favoured by interpretivists due to this detail
ethnography
a scientific description of a specific culture by someone who has first had experience of that culture
eg. Mead
negatives of ethnography
p:it can be difficult to maintain access to a specific group for a long time
r:reliability is problematic-cant be repeated
v:it relies on the researchers interpretation of the community so may not be valid
r:small scale so unrepresentative and cannot be generalised to the wider society
positives of ethnography
v:ethnography consists of small scale field work and so produces qualitative data that is highly valid as it takes place in a natural setting
longitudinal settings
large scale and occur over a long period of time. It selects a sample from whom data is collected by repeated surveys at regular intervals over a period of years.
they make it possible to study change over time and provide detail on the changes that occur.
It may be possible to discover the causes of changes by comparing earlier studies with later ones
data is often quantitative but can be qualitative eg documentaries
negatives of longitudinal studies
p:needs long term funding and the investment of the research team to stay together
p:hard to recruit a committed sample who are willing to stay
r:can use interviews to gain information from participants-which may not be reliable if unstructured
v:hard to stay in contact-may make it less valid
v:can rely on questionnaires for data-less valid
r:small scale-unrepresentative
official statistics
quantitative data gathered by the government or other official bodies
they are often used to inform social policy
hard statistics:purely numerical
soft statistics:represented in different ways eg crime,poverty,unemployment
positives of official statistics
p:usually readily available and accessible-saves time and money
e:they often reduce the number of ethical issues faced by a researcher-often publicly available
r:official statistics are seen as reliable because they are compiled in a standardised way
r:they cover very large numbers so they are often representative
t:positivists are often seen as true and objective and because they are collected at regular intervals-shows trends and patterns over time-show cause and effect
negatives of official statistics
r:issues with reliability could occur through researchers omitting info when recording data from forms or participants filling in forms incorrectly
v:stats collected or omitted may be used to support government policies-reducing validity
t:Marxists see official statistics as serving the interest the capitalism-the statistics the state produces are part of ruling class ideology
documents and mass media
personal/expressive-qualitative data-letters,diaries,autobiographies,memoirs
official/formal-quantitative-school records,health records,social work records
Scotts 4 criteria that should be used for evaluating documents
1) authenticity
2)credibility
3)representativeness
4)meaning
content analysis
systematically analysing a communication to understand its meaning
allows sociologists to get quantitative data from qualitative data
positives of content analysis
p:relatively cheap-easy to find sources of materials
e:no ethical issues as there are not participants
r:relatively reliable as it produces quantitative data that others can check
v:no involvement with people so no opportunity for researcher effect and enables the discovery of things which may not have been obvious before
r:a range of documents can be used-generalisable
t:positivists see it as a useful source of quantitative data
negatives of content analysis
v:a researcher may interpret the document according to their view point and personal bias
t:interpretivists argue that by simply counting up the number of times something appears in a document it doesn’t tell us anything about meaning
secondary document comparison
compared and contrasted to look for similarities and differences- allows comparison between different times,cultures,and groups
allows for the analysis of social behaviour without having to set up artificial research
