Research Methods Flashcards
What is an aim
An aim is a statement of what the researcher intends to find out/investigate in a study
Why do psychologists conduct experiments
To find out the effects of different variables on behaviour
What is a variable
Factor/characteristic/thing that can vary and which cause effects or changes
The IV is
Manipulated to cause an efffect
The DV is
What has been affected by the IV (it’s measured)
What is the operationalised format
Defining variables in a precise manner so they can be used in research.
IV is operationalised by saying how it’s changed
DV is operationalised by saying how it’s being measured
What is a hypothesis
A clear and precise prediction about the difference or relationship between the variables in the study
What is a directional hypothesis
Predicts the specific expected direction of the difference
What is a non directional hypothesis
Predicts there will be an effect but not what the difference will be
when is a directional hypothesis used
when there is previous research indicating that findings will go in a certain direction
when is a non directional hypothesis used
when passed research doesnt indicate a clear direction or when there is no passed research
what is validity
how true what you are claiming is
in designing an experiment what is validity
the extent to which a researcher is actually measuring and testing what they claim to be
what is the difference between experimental and non experimental methods
in experimental methods the researcher has some or all control of the variables, whereas in non experimental methods the researcher has no control over the variables. experimental methods are also interested in finding out the specific effect of variables on other variables.
what are the key features of an experiment being set in a laboratory
the experiment is completely under the control of the researcher to ensure that the only thing having an effect on the DV is the IV
what are the key features of an experiment being set in a field
this means it is set in the participants usual environment so is a good way to see natural behaviour, the researcher is also still in charge of the IV
what are the key features of and experiment being set in a natural environment
the IV is naturally occurring or pre-existing for example an earthquake
what are the key features of an experiment having a QUASI setting
its a type of natural experiment so the IV is also pre existing or naturally occurring and to do with the participant for example age,
what is an extraneous variable
unwanted factors in a study that, if not accounted for, could negatively affect the data collected
what is ecological validity
a type of external validity that refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalized to a real-life setting
what is mundane realism
the degree to which the materials and procedures involved in an experiment are similar to events that occur in the real world.
what are demand characteristics
when the participants try to make sense of the research and act accordingly to support the aim of the research.
what are the strengths of a laboratory experiment
high level of control over extraneous variables and higher reliability as they can be repeated to get continuous results
what are the limitations of a laboratory experiments
low mundane realism and ecological validity and more likely to have demand characteristics because participants could guess aims of experiment
what are the strengths of a field experiment
still has a degree of control and can manipulate the IV, high ecological validity and less demand characteristics as participants are normally unaware
what are the limitations of a field experiment
more extraneous variables so lower reliability, more likely to have ethical issues
what are the strengths of a natural experiment
high ecological validity, providing unique insight as unique situations are normally observed
what are the limitations of a natural experiment
lack of control of the extraneous variables so IV is observed rather than manipulated, its not able to be generalised
what are strengths of QUASI experiments
compare different groups of people, can be controlled or natural settings
what are the limitations of a QUASI experiment
might have a bias as you cant randomly allocate ppts as there characteristics are the IV and more likely to have extraneous variables
what is experimental design
how experimenters allocate their ppts
what are the 3 types of experimental design
independent measures, repeated measures and matched pairs
what does independent measures entail
different ppts in each condition, this is normally randomly allocated
how to go about random allocation
give each ppts a number and randomly generate that number to a condition in a random manner
what does repeated measures entail
the same ppts take part in both conditions
what can repeated measures cause
order effects
what are the order effects + explanation
practice effects- they will be better second time because of practice
fatigue effects- they will lose focus as they have done it already
what can reduce order effects + explanation
counter balancing- each condition tested first or second in equal amounts:
AB BA or ABBA
what does matched pairs entail
pairs of ppts matched based on key variables e.g. age, one member of each pair is then places in different conditions
What are strengths of independent measures
Avoids order effects
Avoids/reduces chances of guessing aims of study (demand characteristics) as people are only aware of one part of the study
What are the limitations of independent measures
Requires large numbers of ppts which could be time consuming
Cannot control individual differences of ppts which could become extraneous variables
What are strengths of repeated measures
-Controls for individual differences reducing ppts variables having an effect on the DV
- fewer participants needed
Limitations of of repeated measures
-strong chance of order effects
-participants may guess the purpose of experiment and behaviour could be affected (demand characteristics)
Advantages of matched pairs
-effects of individual differences can be reduced by matching ppts on these variables
- avoids order effects and demand characteristics
Limitations of of matched pairs
-Exact matches difficult/ impossible to achieve and match correct variables
- requires large number of participants
what is target population
population of people that the research is aimed at, you select you sample using sampling techniques
what is a sampling frame
list of potential participants from the target population
what is opportunity sampling
taking your sample from readily available people
what is volunteer sampling
volunteers select themselves as its advertised for volunteers
what is random sampling
each member of target population is identified and a random selection process is applied
what is systematic sampling
ppts are selected bases on a predetermined system, you would select every nth person from a list of target population
what is stratified sampling
ppts selected based on their frequency in the population
explain stratified sampling step by step
1) build your sampling frame
2) identify relevant strata
3) calculate the proportion of each sub group in relation to target population (%)
4) work out same proportions for your total sample size
5) select ppts in those proportions using a random system
what are advantages of opportunity sampling
-easiest sample to implement
-less time consuming
limitations of opportunity sampling
-very likely to be biased by researchers choices of people
-unlikely to be representative affecting validity and findings being generalised
advantages of volunteer sampling
-requires little work so very convenient
-can target curtain populations based on where you advertise
disadvantages of opportunity sampling
-very likely to have volunteer bias as particular types of people volunteer for things
-unlikely to be fully representative
advantages of random sampling
-unbiased method of selection a researcher doesn’t influence who is chosen
limitations of random sampling
-could still be unrepresentative e.g. could only select women
-requires sampling frame which takes time and effort
-ppts could turn down taking part which is time consuming
advantages of systematic sampling
-unbiased as ppts are selected using an objective method
limitations of systematic sampling
-could still be unrepresentative e.g only select women
-requires sampling frame
-ppts could turn down taking part which is time consuming
advantages of stratified sampling
-most representative
-unbiased as ppts are selected randomly
limitations of stratified sampling
very difficult to achieve in practice as you need:
accurate sampling, time to calculate proportion, apply by random selection
What is an ethical issue in psychology
Conflict between what the researcher needs to do in order to conduct useful research, and the rights of ppts
What are ethical guidelines
Set of guidelines researchers have to follow to help them decide what is acceptable or not when they plan their research
What are the expectations of the BPS
-Researchers must follow ethical guidelines outlined in code of conduct
-Must conduct cost benefit analysis
-Outline and present research proposals to an ethics committee
What are the ethical issues
Lack of informed/valid consent
Deception
Lack of ppts right to withdraw
Risk of harm
Confidently/privacy
Explain valid or informed consent from researchers pov
They are responsible for making ppts aware of what will actually happen
This can create demand characteristics
Explain valid/informed concent from the ppts pov
Ppts have a right to know what they are consenting to
However outlining risks can be hard and unpredictable
What should be included in a convent form
-Thanks for agreeing to take part
-Description of aims and task statement about how data will be kept
-Right to withdraw reminder
-Opportunity to ask questions
-Signature line
Explain deception
Researchers sometimes need to deceive their ppts in order to reduce demand characteristics however this goes against valid consent
Explain right to withdraw
Researchers are responsible for reminding ppts of this
Ppts have the right to withdraw at any point and should not feel pressured to stay
Explain risk of harm
Most research may present some risk of harm and and is the researcher’s responsibility to plan appropriately however it’s not always possible to predict the harm
Harm can be physical or psychological
BPS guidelines state that ppts should not be subject to more harm than everyday life
Explain confidentiality
Researchers should anonymise results e.g. use numbers or letters as ppts names
Confidentiality is a legal right so data can only be recorded if it’s kept confidential
Explain privacy
BPS guidelines state that pubic behaviour can be observed without prior consent
Ppts have a right to privacy but it’s their responsibility to ensure they do not share information that they want to keep private
what are 2 ways to deal with ethical issues
debrief and presumptive consent
explain debriefing to deal with ethical issues
this should always occur after a study but especially if ppts have been deceived. It provides ppts full info about aims and purpose, checks on well being, gives chance to ask questions, and gives another chance to withdraw
explain presumptive consent
this can be used when researchers must deceive their ppts. They would ask another group similar to the group of ppts if they would give consent after being told all the information, the researcher can use this to gain presumptive consent.
What are the different types of observations?
Overt, covert participant, non-participant, structured, unstructured, controlled, naturalistic
What do observations involve?
Watching and recording behaviour
What is a controlled observation?
The observation is carried out in a controlled setting
Explain a controlled observation
Takes place in a controlled environment, observer can control extenuate variables and set up a task to ensure they can observe the target behaviour
What is a naturalistic observation?
The observation happens in participants natural environment
Explain a naturalistic observation
The research is less slightly to be able to control extreme behaviours and they may not see the target behaviour during observation
What is an unstructured observation?
When the researcher observes everything they see
Explain a unstructured observation
The researcher records everything they say in anyway they please so it’s more likely to collect more qualitative data
What is a structured observation?
The observer uses a system to observe specific behaviours
Explain a structured observation
The research uses various systems to organise the recordings of The observations
What are the two systems used in structured observations?
Coding systems and sampling procedures
Explain behavioural categories/coding systems?
It operationalises behaviours into a set of components which must be objective and and be exclusive, so no overlapping between categories
Explain event sampling
Each behavioural category is a separate event, during the total observation the researcher records in a table each time each behaviour occurs
what are the features of science
objectivity and the empirical method
replicability
theory construction and hypothesis testing
falsifiability
paradigms
explain objectivity
based on facts not opinions, so is true for everyone
explain empirical methods
based on objectivity as empricism highlights the importance of data collection
explain replicability
will use standard procedures and instructions in controlled environments, and determines its reliability
what is a theory
set of general laws or principles that can be explained events or behaviour
explain theory construction and hypothesis testing
occurs through testing hypotheses and gathering evidence to make a clear and precise prediction
what did Karl Popper believe
scientific principles are not necessarily true but had just not been proven wrong
what is falsifiability
putting scientific theories up for hypothesis testing to be proven false
what are paradigms
a shared set of assumptions and methods that are universally agreed on
why did Kuhn not classify psychology as a science
he believed it lacked a paradigm
what is a paradigm shift
scientific revolution due to evidence
what is time sampling
during the total observation time they record which behaviours occur at predetermined time intervals
what is a problem with time sampling
observer bias
what is observer bias and why is it a problem
when two observers may interpret different behaviours differently, which could lead to results becoming invalid
what are the 3 ways to overcome observer bias and what they involve
operationalise terms/behaviours to define how we measure certain things, use double blind procedure where both the researcher and and ppts are unaware of hypothesis , pilot study is a small ‘practice’ study
what is inter observer reliability
-Two or more observers observe the same thing separately, they compare and check for agreements, then plot a scatter graph and measure the correlation coefficient
What are the strengths of observations
High external validity, Practical method, Fewer demand characteristics
Why do observations have high external validity so
most occur in natural setting so results can be generalised to other settings
Explain observations having practical method s
Can be used in situations where manipulation may be unethical
Why do observations have fewer demand characteristics
With covert observations ppts are unaware of being observed so no demand characteristics
What are limitations of observations
Cause and effect, Practical problems, Replication, Observer bias, Ethics
Explain observation cause and effect
Little control over extraneous variables and therefore causality can’t be based on what was manipulated
Why do observations have practical problems
Struggles with practical observations e.g. how many people to observe
What are self reports
Participants reporting on their own thoughts feelings and beliefs
What are the two types of self reports
Questionnaire and interview
Explain questionnaires
They involve gathering information from a large number of people face to face, by telephone, by post, or via the internet
Explain the two types of questions
Closed questions: researcher determines range of responses e.g. ‘Yes’ or ‘no’
Open ended: researcher doesn’t restrict responses
Negative of closed ended questions
May be forced to select answer that doesn’t really represent their feelings
Positive of closed ended questions
Produce quantitative data which is easier to analyse
Positive open ended questions
Gets qualitative data which is rich in detail
Negative of open ended questions
Difficult to summarise answers and draw conclusions
Strengths of using questionnaires
Simplicity-once designed they are easy to administer
Speed-large amount of info can be collected in short amount of time
Weaknesses of questionnaires
Problems with question wording- problems with interpretation
Researcher effects and biases
Explain interviews
Often used in case studies, in person, online, and telephone
Explain structured interviews
Aim to produce quantitative data and include questions decided in advance
Explain unstructed interviews
Usually start with one or two set questions and then relate to issues raised by interviewees
Explain semi structures interviews
Start with set questions but you can add in follow up questions as needed
Strengms of interviews
Complex issues can be explored
Can investigate behaviour that is personal
Limitations of interviews
Qualitative data is difficult to analyse + bias from interviewer
Demand characteristics in interviewees responses
explain validity issues of interviews
Participants alter responses to present themselves in the best way possible
Leading questions from interviewer
Interviewer behaviour could influence responses
Questions not measuring what is claimed
What are 2 ways to assess and improve validity + explanation
Face validity - does it look like its measuring the right thing
Concurrent validity- comparing new results with previous results
How to test reliability issues
Test -re-test method: asking ppts to rare same test und compare results
What is a case study
An in depth study of one individual, group, or event using a range of methods
What are strengths of a case study
- Allows you to collect rich, in depth data
- looks at reach behaviour, not just in a controlled setting
- looks at unique cases
- complex factors can be studied
What are limitations of case studies
- likely to have ethical issues e.g. Lack of confidentiality
- focuses on now we are unique so findings are hard to generalise
What are the features of a normal distribution curve
Symmetrical sides, mean median and mode all is same position
What is the characteristics of negatively skewed data
Mode is the highest value
What are the characteristics of positively skewed data
Mode is the lowest number
Explain the features of bar graphs
Used to compare groups or conditions bars must be separated
What are the features of scattergrams
Used to show the relationship between two variables, each data point is a participant
What are the features of histograms
Shows distribution of data on a continuous scale, all bars are joined, Y axis must start at zero, usually data within the same group or condition
What are the features of line graphs
Shows continuous data
What must you include when drawing a graph
Having fully operationalised title and labels on axis
