Research Methods Flashcards
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What is the experimental method?
A scientific method involving the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect. Participants are organised and allocated in a certain way. All procedures are standardised so that they are the same for all pps
What is a variable?
Any object, event or characteristic varying in some way
What is an independent variable?
The thing or factor that is manipulated in an experiment
What is a dependent variable?
The thing or factor that is measured by the researcher to see if the IV affected it
What is a control variable?
The variables which are held constant or limited in a research study because they could influence the outcomes of the experiment
What are extraneous variables?
Any other variables that could affect the DV, so we try to control these so that they don’t vary across any experimental conditions or between pps, e.g. participant variables (age), situational variables (noise levels) and experimenter variables (gender of experimenter)
What are confounding variables?
When an extraneous variable is not controlled, it confuses the results by affecting the dependent variable
What does it mean to operationalise a variable?
To clearly define a variable so that the IV can be manipulated and the DV can be measured. Some variables are very difficult to operationalise and therefore measure. Sometimes operationalising a variable means that we are only measuring one aspect, however, without accurate operationalisation, results can be unreliable and replicating the study to observe the validity becomes difficult
What are demand characteristics?
When conducting research, pps are not always passive, and spend time making sense of the situation. This is an extraneous variable and is difficult to control. Features of a study can help pps guess what the study is and the expected outcome
What can demand characteristics mean?
The pps guess the purpose of the study and try to please the researcher - the “please you” effect The pps guess the purpose of the study and try to upset it - the “screw you” effect The pps act unnaturally due to nervousness and fear of evaluation The pps act unnaturally due to social desirability bias
How can we avoid demand characteristics?
Single blind technique - pps are “blind” to the research aims with no idea of which condition they are in Double blind technique - both the pps and the researcher are blind to the research aims, reducing subconscious researcher cues/clues for certain behaviours, reducing investigator effects
What are investigator effects and give examples
When the investigator can subconsciously influence the results of the research - Physical characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity) - Personal characteristics (tone or volume of voice) - Unconscious bias in interpretation of data to support what they expected to find
What is a research aim?
A precise statement of why a study is taking place and what is being studied. It will describe the purpose of the research “The aim of the study is to investigate the effect of caffeine on reaction times”
What is a hypothesis?
A precise, testable prediction of what is expected to happen in an experiment
What is the experimental/alternative hypothesis?
This predicts that differences in the IV will lead to a change in the DV “Increasing levels of caffeine consumption will significantly affect reaction time”
What is a null hypothesis?
This predicts that changes in the IV will not affect the DV “Increasing levels of caffeine consumption will have no effect on reaction time”
What is a directional (one tailed) hypothesis?
Predicts the direction of the results/the actual direction of any change caused by the IV - uses words such as “smaller”, “greater”, “increase” and “decrease” “There will be a significant reduction in reaction times as a result of increased caffeine consumption”
What is a non-directional (two tailed) hypothesis?
Predicts that there will be a difference but does not predict the direction of the results/predicts that a change will be caused by the IV, but the direction of the change is unknown - uses words such as “lead to”, “change”, “difference”, “will have an effect on” “There will be a significant difference in the speed of reaction times as a result of caffeine consumption
Describe what a laboratory experiment is
Take place in controlled conditions/environments using standardised processes
What are the strengths of laboratory experiments?
- High levels of control of all variables - IV and DV are precisely operationalised and measured, increasing accuracy - If all extraneous variables are controlled, it is easier to establish cause and effect - the change in the DV must be due to the IV - High level of reliability because the experiment can be replicated
What are the weaknesses of laboratory experiments?
- Low ecological validity because it is not a real life environment - high levels of control make the situation artificial - Demand characteristics are more likely because pps are aware they are being tested - their behaviour may change unconsciously or consciously - Operationalising variables may mean they are less applicable to real life
Describe what a field experiment is
Take place in a real world setting rather than artificial environments. The IV is manipulated by the experimenter
What are the strengths of field experiments?
- High ecological validity because findings are applicable to real life settings - Avoids pp effects because they are not aware of the study
What are the weaknesses of field experiments?
- Low levels of reliability - it would be difficult to get the same findings in a natural environment because it has a low level of control to it - Harder to establish cause and effect
What is a natural experiment?
Takes place in a natural setting but the IV already exists naturally - the variable would have changed in real life whether or not it was being researched
What are the strengths of a natural experiment?
- High ecological validity as it is happening in the natural environment - No demand characteristics, especially if participants are unaware of the experiment - Practical and ethical reasons may mean this is the only method that can be used
What are the weaknesses of natural experiments?
- No control over extraneous variables - No direct manipulation of the IV, therefore it is more difficult to establish cause and effect - Difficult to replicate as conditions are unlikely to be exactly the same - Potential sample bias as groups are not selected in particular ways
What is a quasi experiment?
The IV simply exists and is based on a difference between people. It has not been manipulated; it simply exists. Pps are not randomly allocated to conditions - they fit that category by default. These differences can be tested in laboratory conditions
What are the strengths of quasi experiments?
Often carried out under controlled conditions and therefore share almost the same strengths and weaknesses as laboratory experiments. For example, there may be higher controlled studies with low ecological validity
What are the weaknesses of quasi experiments?
Because the allocation to the IV is not completely random, we cannot be certain that the IV has caused any change to the DV
What is meant by “experimental design”?
The way in which participants in a study are organised into conditions
What is a population?
The whole of a target group
What is a sample?
Part of a larger population - we test a sample as normally it is extremely difficult or maybe impossible to test an entire population
When is a sample biased or unrepresentative?
A sample may be selected in a way that means the selection is somehow biased to selecting certain pps and not others. This means that it may not represent the target population. This will be as a result of the sampling technique used
What is generalisability?
How effectively we can transfer the results from a sample to the entire population. If a sample is biased or unrepresentative of the target population, then the results may be considered less generalisable
What is a random sample?
Where each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected. For example, names could be selected by random number generators or out of a hat to avoid bias
What are the strengths of a random sample?
- Unbiased selection, meaning it should be more representative - A representative sample creates results that are more generalisable to the population
What are the weaknesses of random samples?
- Impractical - it is difficult to get full details of a target population, and not all members want to participate - Unbiased selection does not guarantee an unbiased sample, for example, by chance, all females could be selected
What is an opportunity sample?
Selecting pps who are available and willing to take part, such as asking people in a street, a class from school, or most commonly in university studies, undergraduates for convenience
What are the strengths of opportunity samples?
- Easy to create with people who are available - In a natural experiment, the researcher often has to select those who are naturally available
What are the weaknesses of an opportunity sample?
- The sample is likely to be biased and therefore unrepresentative as it may exclude certain pps. Therefore, it is hard to generalise results to the target population - Through self-selection, pps have the opportunity to decline, In this case, the sampling technique becomes self-selected
What is a volunteer (or self selected) sample?
People volunteer or self select to take part as pps. This is often by responding to an advert
What are the strengths of a volunteer (self selected) sample?
- The sample is easy to form as, other than advertising, the pps volunteer themselves - Pps are presumably keen to take part and therefore less likely to sabotage the study (screw you effect)
What are the weaknesses of a volunteer (self selected) sample?
- Volunteers are likely to be a certain type of person and therefore the sample is likely to be biased and unrepresentative. This may make results less generalisable - Volunteers may be eager to please, which increases the chance of demand characteristics
What is a systematic sample?
Involves taking every “nth” person from a list. The population size is calculated to work out the sampling interval
What are the strengths of systematic sampling?
- Unbiased selection and therefore more representative - Generalisable results (unless by chance every nth person has certain characteristics)
What are the weaknesses of systematic sampling?
Periodic traits - if by chance every nth person has a particular trait, the sample will not be representative
What is stratified sampling?
This attempts to overcome the potential issues with other techniques by creating a small scale reproduction of a population by dividing it into characteristics that are important for the research, such as age, social class and level of education, and then the population is randomly sampled within each stratum (category)
What are the strengths of a stratified sample?
- The sample should be representative as it is attempting to select from sub-groups within a population - Should be unbiased as the sample is randomly taken from the sub groups
What are the weaknesses of stratified sampling?
- This needs detailed knowledge of the population characteristics, which may be difficult to obtain or not always available - To divide a population into stratums and then randomly selecting from each can be very time consuming
Explain repeated measures
The same pps are used in both conditions
What are the strengths of repeated measures?
No participant variables
What are the weaknesses of repeated measures?
- Increased risk of demand characteristics - Order effects - Practice effects
Explain independent groups
The pps are allocated to two different groups, each only experiencing one condition
What are the strengths of independent groups?
- Less risk of demand characteristics - No order effects - No practice effects
What are the weaknesses of independent groups?
Risk of participant variables
Explain matched pairs
Pairs of participants are closely matched (using key characteristics/criteria, like age or gender) and are then randomly allocated to one of the experimental conditions. The perfect pair would be monozygotic twins
Describe the process of creating a matched pairs experiment
- Pps are tested on key criteria 2. 2 pps are matched based on these characteristics to form a matched pair 3. The pair are then separated - one is put into condition A and the other into condition B 4. This is then repeated for all of the selected pps in the sample 5. A group in condition A and a group in condition B are made as similar as possible based on the key characteristics initially tested
What are the strengths of matched pairs?
- Really makes the groups equal - Takes away pp variables
What are the weaknesses of matched pairs?
- Time consuming as pre-testing is needed - Difficult to match pps exactly - monozygotic twins are hard to find
What are order effects?
When an experiment is affected by the order in which a pp experiences the conditions - they may get bored or tired and so perform worse in the second condition
What are practice effects?
When a pp gets better in the second conditions due to the fact that they have had practice in the first condition
Describe random allocation as a method of control in experimental design
Randomly placing pps in either condition in an independent groups experiment, e.g. names out of a hat
How do you randomly allocate by pulling names out of a hat?
- Get a hat 2. Cut piece of paper into strips of the number of pps you have in the study 3. Write the name of one of the pps onto one of the strips of paper 4. Fold up the strip of paper so that you can’t see the name and place it in the hat 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all of the pp names are in the hat 6. Shake the hat to mix up the names 7. Close your eyes and reach into the hat and pick out a name. This person goes into condition A 8. Repeat step 7, but this pp goes into condition B 9. Repeat this process of allocation until all of the pps have been allocated to a condition
How would you use counterbalancing as a method of control in experimental design?
Used to counteract order or practice effects in repeated measures experiments In the first test, Group A would do condition 1 whilst Group B did condition 2 In the second test, Group B would do condition 1 whilst Group A did condition 2 Essentially the two groups are tested on the same two conditions in different orders We test each group on one condition first and then swap them over for the second test
Explain observations as a non-experimental method
- No manipulation of variables - Observations are not technically classed as experiments - A researcher simply observes behaviour and looks for patterns - We cannot draw cause and effect relationships - Observations are used as a method or a technique in psychological research
Describe observations as a research technique
This is when observations are used as a part of another research method such as a lab study or a field study. Many areas in psychology involve some aspect of observation
What is observational research?
This is where the entire study is an observation
What is a naturalistic observation?
Behaviour is studied in a natural situation where everything has been left as it normally is
What is a controlled observation?
Some variables are controlled by the researcher, reducing the naturalness of the behaviour being studied. Pps are likely to know that they are being observed and the study may take place in a lab
What is a participant observation?
The observer is a pp who takes part in the observation. It may be difficult for the observer to record everything as they have to wait for an opportune moment to write down their observations. However, they may gain a deeper insight into behaviour
What is a non-participant observation?
A person who is not involved in the observation is the observer. It is easier to record data and the observer can remain unbiased
What is an overt observation?
The pp knows that they are being observed, e.g. by a physical person in the room
What is a covert observation?
The pp does not know that they are being observed, e.g. by hidden camera
What data may a researcher collect from an observation?
Qualitative data - non-numeric or Quantitative data - numeric data Depending on the method of observation, the researcher may collect either one of or both types of data
What is a coding system?
When behaviour is operationalised by being broken into different categories. Observers agree on a grid or coding sheet on which to record behaviour being studied. Rather than writing descriptions of behaviour observed, it is easier to code/rate behaviour using previously agreed scales
How should data be recorded in a continuous experiment and what is the problem with this?
The observer should record every instance of the behaviour being studied, however, in practicality, there would be too much data to record, so instead we use a systematic method of sampling
What is event sampling?
Counting each time a particular behaviour is observed in a target individual
What is time sampling?
Recording data at particular intervals, e.g. every 30 seconds
What is a structured interview?
Involves identical closed questions being read to pps with the interviewer writing down answers. Interviewers do not need much training as such interviews are easy to conduct
What is an unstructured interview?
Involves an informal discussion on a particular subject. Interviewers can explore interesting answers by asking follow up questions. Interviewers need considerable training and skill to conduct such interviews
What is a semi structured interview?
Combines both structured and unstructured interviews. Might have a series of prepared questions, but the interviewer might alter the interview as it goes along, adding new questions as information arises. It’s often called a clinical trial as it is like an interview a doctor will give you
What are the advantages of interviews?
- Complex issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews, putting pps at ease to talk - particularly true of unstructured interviews - Can ease misunderstandings that may arise about the questions which can be adapted so they can be understood by all pps - Data analysis - semi-structured interviews produce both qualitative and quantitative data, which can be used to complement each other. Structured interviews produce quantitative data that can be easily analysed Replication - the more standardised or structured the easier to replicate - unstructured data can still be reviewed
What are the disadvantages of interviews?
- Interviewer effects - interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, like by their appearance - women less likely to talk about sex with male interviewers - Subject to demand characteristics and social desirability bias - Interviewer training - a lot of skill required to carry out unstructured interviews, especially concerning sensitive issues and these interviewers are hard to find - Ethical issues - pps may not know purpose of interview an may reveal more than they wish - Pp answers - interviews are not suited to pps who have difficulty putting their feelings and opinions into words
Why should gender and age be considered when selecting an interviewer?
The sex and age of interviewers affect pp answers when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature
Why should ethnicity be considered when selecting an interviewer?
Interviewer may have difficulty interviewing people from different ethnic groups to themselves. Word et al (1974) found that white interviewers spent 25% les time interviewing black pps than white pps
Why should personal characteristics/adopted roles be considered when selecting an interviewer?
Interviewers can adopt different roles within and interview setting, and use of formal language, accent and appearance can also affect how the interviewer comes across to the interviewee
What are questionnaires?
- Consist of pre-set questions - The same for everyone in the sample - Can use open or closed questions - A self-report method - Can use scales like the Likert scale, e.g. strongly agree - strongly disagree
What are closed questions?
Questions with a set number of possible answers - multiple choice/rating scales for example. Allow for statistical/quantitative data E.g. do you like chocolate?
What are open questions?
Questions that allow for in depth answers where pps choose their own response and are not limited. Answers are difficult to place into categories E.g. what is your favourite song?
What are the strengths of questionnaires?
- Can be used to access people’s behaviours, thoughts and feelings - Easy to administer to a large sample quickly - Highly cost effective - All pps are asked the same questions so patterns and trends can be seen - Can easily be repeated so results can gain reliability
What are the weaknesses of questionnaires?
- Subject to social desirability bias and lack of honesty - Unreliable - if pps misunderstand questions in closed questionnaires, they might not be able to give the answer they want - Qualitative data is not easy to collate into categories - Do not account for individual differences - same questions - individual answers cannot be explored
What is the difference between correlational studies and experimental studies?
Correlational studies measure the strength and direction of relationships between co-variables, often naturally occurring events, whereas experimental studies look for differences between different conditions of an IV
What is a positive correlation and what does it look like?
Occurs when one co-variable increases as the other co-variable increases
What is a negative correlation and what does it look like?
Occurs when one co-variable increases as the other co-variable decreases
What does the rating line of correlation look like?
-1.0 —- 0 —- +1.0 -1.0 = perfect negative correlation - all data falls on a downward slope line +1.0 = perfect positive correlation - all the data falls on an upward slope line
It ain’t great if it ain’t….
0.8!!! To be statistically significant, the correlation strength has to be at least -0.8 or +0.8
What are the strengths of correlational studies?
- Allows predictions to be made, once a correlation can be established between two co-variables - It shows the strength and direction of a relationship between the co-variables - this is important in positive and negative correlations - No manipulation of variables is required and so correlational studies can be carried out where operationalisation of variables is difficult or an experiment would be unethical
What are the weaknesses of correlational studies?
- It is difficult to establish cause and effect - they are not carried out under controlled conditions and so correlations do not show causality - it is difficult to confirm that one co-variable has caused another, e.g. coffee and anxiety - Extraneous relationships are at play - when another variable may also influence the effect, e.g. coffee and anxiety - Only works for linear relationships - correlations only show a linear relationship and not a curvilinear one (inverted u)
What is the BPS code of conduct?
- The British Psychological Society published a code of ethics that all psychologists should follow - If it becomes clear that there are negative consequences resulting from the research, the research should be stopped and efforts made to correct the negative consequences
What is informed consent as one of the criteria of the code of ethics?
Pps should be given sufficient details of an investigation that they can make a considered choice if they want to participate. Parental consent should be given for children under 16 and informed consent cannot be given by those under the influence of drugs or alcohol or if they are mentally unfit
What is avoidance of deception as one of the criteria of the code of ethics?
Withholding information/misleading pps is unacceptable if pps are likely to object or be uneasy once debriefed. Intentional deception over the purpose and nature of investigations should be avoided and pps are not to be misled without medical or scientific justification or consent of an informed nature cannot be obtained. In cases where purpose deception is required to get realistic results, deception must be dealt with ethically. If deception is used, pps must be told immediately after the study has finished and offered to withdraw their data
What is presumptive consent?
Gained from people of similar background to the pps - if they say they would have been willing to participate, it is deemed that the pps would too
What is prior general consent?
This involves pps agreeing to be deceived but not knowing how/consenting to everything that could take place - this can affect behaviour
What is retrospective consent?
Asking pps for consent after participation
What is adequate briefing/debriefing as one of the criteria of the code of ethics?
Relevant details of a study should be explained to pps before and afterwards. A debrief is important if deception was used. Pps should leave the study in no worse state than when they started. Debriefing is not justification for unethical aspects of a study
What is protection of participants as one of the criteria of the code of ethics?
Investigators have responsibility to protect pps from physical and mental harm during the investigation. Risk of harm must be no greater than in ordinary life
What is the right to withdraw as one of the criteria of the code of ethics?
Pps should be aware that they can leave a study at any time, and can even withdraw their data after the study has finished
What is confidentiality/anonymity as one of the criteria of the code of ethics?
Data should not be disclosed to anyone unless agreed so in advance. Numbers are used instead of names in published research papers. In confidentiality, data can be traced back to names and so is preferable when pps may be followed up, but in anonymous data, no names are collected at all
What is observational research as one of the criteria of the code of ethics?
Observations should only be made in public places where people might expect to be observed by strangers
What does the code of ethics say about incentives to participate?
Pps should not be offered bribes or promised rewards for their participation in a study as this puts pressure on them to take part
What are the implications of psychological research for the economy?
- Practical everyday applications are created for the betterment of society through conducting research - Psychological research substantially contributes to the economy, e.g. creation of effective therapy for mental disorders - 10% of the time in a mental institute sees 1/3 people receive treatment for a mental problem - Effective therapies make huge savings in financial costs as many can return to work and contribute more fully to the economy - Koran et al 2000 - Olanzapine and Fluoxetine = reduced OCD - sufferers could return to work, earn money, pay tax and not incur long term financial costs upon the health service, benefitting the economy - Brosnan and Thorpe 2006 - study on systematic desensitisation
What is a pilot study?
A small scale “practice” piece of research, taking place before conducting the real research. It allows the researcher to identify any issues with the design, method or analysis so they can be changed. Pps can also suggest possible changes, e.g. if they experienced demand characteristics. It is used to discover if there is a chance of significant results being found
What is a peer review?
- After conducting research, psychologists need to disseminate it - As many experts as possible need to publicly read, evaluate and comment on it - An integral aspect of science - Once research is written up as a report, it is submitted for publication to a journal - Journals are publications that appear several times a year containing collections of reports - Reports are not automatically published - go through a peer review process - Editorial boards select reports based on relevance and quality and send them to other specialists in the field
What are three things that can happen to a report based on the anonymous evaluation of specialists?
It can be… - Accepted for publication - Revised before publication - Rejected for publication
What are the criticisms of peer reviews?
- Peer review is more likely to accept research with existing theory than novel and controversial research that is not mainstream - Peer review is subject to bias, especially if the reviewers hold views that are contradictory to the research - Research is more likely to be accepted if it accepts the experimental hypothesis rather than the null hypothesis, i.e. it has actually proven something
Define the term “validity”
The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure
What is internal validity?
- Refers to the things that happen “inside” the study - Concerned with whether we can be certain that it was the IV which caused the change in the DV - If aspects of the experimental situation lack internal validity, the results are meaningless and we can make no meaningful conclusions from the study
What can internal validity be affected by?
Internal validity can be affected by a lack of mundane realism - the tests used are not anything like what we would do in “normal life”. This could lead the pps to act in a way which is unnatural, thus making the results less valid. Internal validity can also be affected by extraneous variables which may have had an effect on the DV
What is external validity?
How well the results of the study can be generalised beyond the experimental setting
