Attachment

Question 1

What is an attachment?

Answer 1

A two way emotional bond that develops over time between two people, shown in their behaviour.

Question 2

What three behaviours might show that an attachment has formed?

Answer 2

Stranger anxiety, separation protest, and secure-base behaviour

Question 3

What is stranger anxiety?

Answer 3

Distress in the presence of unknown individuals

Question 4

What is separation protest?

Answer 4

Distress at the absence of a specific person - need for proximity to an individual

Question 5

What is secure-base behaviour?

Answer 5

Regular return to the attachment figure, e.g. infants when playing

Question 6

What is bodily contact as a type of carer-infant interaction?

Answer 6

Close proximity helps to form an attachment bond

Question 7

What is interactional synchrony as a type of caregiver-infant interaction?

Answer 7

Mother and infant’s actions and emotions mirror each other, and they do this in a co-ordinated, synchronised way

Question 8

What is reciprocity as a type of caregiver-infant interaction?

Answer 8

A description of how two individuals interact. It is a two way process when each person responds to the other and elicits a response from them (turn taking/ question and answer). Most likely led by the adult.

Question 9

What type of attachment is desirable to have?

Answer 9

secure attachment

Question 10

What did Klaus and Kennell find in 1976?

Answer 10

Compared babies who had several hours of contact with those that only had contact during feeding with mother in the three days after birth.

One month later the mums that had the greater physical contact were more likely to cuddle their babies and maintain better eye contact.

Effects were noticeable one year on, therefore suggesting that greater physical contact creates stronger attachment bonds

Question 11

What did Melzoff and Moore find in 1977?

Answer 11

Found infants aged 2-3 weeks mimicked adults’ specific facial expressions - this was then seen in infants less than three days old, therefore suggesting that infant mimicry is an innate biological device to facilitate attachment formation

Question 12

What did Isabella find in 1989?

Answer 12

Observed 30 mother and infant relationships, finding high levels of synchrony between mother and infant were as sociated with better mother-infant relationships, therefore suggesting that synchrony between mother and child is a feature of attachment formation

Question 13

What did Le Vine et al find in 1994 to criticise Isabella’s research?

Answer 13

Found that interactional synchrony is not found in all cultures - reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical contact or interactions with infants, however, a high proportion of these infants do form secure attachments, suggesting that interactional synchrony is not necessary for attachments to form

Question 14

What are the strengths of using observations to study attachment?

Answer 14

They are controlled procedures

take place in a lab and recorded

filmed from multiple angles, babies don’t realise that they are being filmed, and the footage can be analysed at a later date to check the accuracy of the recordings.

This all helps the validity of the research

Question 15

What are the weaknesses of using observations to study attachments?

Answer 15

Can be subjective due to a lack of verbal ability in children and so assumptions or inferences about behaviour are re lied upon, leading us to question if the infant’s action was really deliberate?

Therefore, research may lack accuracy and validity.

They can also be unreliable if there is only one observe

Question 16

What is a strength of using questionnaires to study attachment?

Answer 16

Economical

large sample size as easy to distribute

Can use open and closed questions

Question 17

What is a weakness of using questionnaires to study attachment?

Answer 17

Social desirability bias may be present as a mother may fall into the please you effect as she describes her attachment with her child.

This can therefore lead to the results being inaccurate and thus not valid

Question 18

What is a strength of using interviews to study attachment?

Answer 18

Can use open ended questions to gain rich in depth detailed information, increasing validity

Question 19

What are the weaknesses of using interviews to study attachment?

Answer 19

Social desirability bias and interviewer bias may be present, leading to inaccuracy in results and a lack of internal validity.

Inaccurate responses may be given as the mother cannot recall the information needed, reducing validity.

Usually uses a smaller sample size, reducing reliability

Question 20

What are some possible issues with attachment research?

Answer 20

Ethical issues

Parental consent needed, children will not exercise their right to withdraw and need to be closely monitored for distress. Confidentiality and privacy issues may be raised

Practical issues

Babies are often asleep or being fed

Attachment research is often socially sensitive because it has implications for the wider public

e.g. working mothers feeling they can’t go back to work because of the importance of what research says about the attachment bond

Question 21

Who put forward the four staged of attachment in 1996?

Answer 21

Schaffer and Emerson

Question 22

Asocial Stage

Answer 22

0 to 6 weeks

Infant begins to form bonds with carers.

A slight preference for humans over non-human objects is shown, though this increases from 6 weeks old, and this preference is shown by smiling at faces, particularly those of familiar adults.

Question 23

Indiscriminate Stage

Answer 23

6 weeks to 7 months

Distinct preference for familiar adults but will accept com fort from any, no anxiety towards strangers and no separation anxiety

Question 24

Specific Stage

Answer 24

7 to 9 months

Infant shows separation anxiety and stranger anxiety.

Baby has formed a specific attachment to one caregiver, in 65% of cases, the mother.

This is the primary attachment figure.

Question 25

Multiple Attachment Stage

Answer 25

10 months +

Infant forms secondary attachments easily with other caregivers, e.g. grandparents, once they have formed the initial primary attachment

Out of all the attachments the infants formed, they varied greatly in strength and value/importance to the child.

Question 26

Schaffer and Emerson - Aim

Answer 26

To identify stages of attachment/find a pattern in the development of an attachment between infants and parents

Question 27

Schaffer and Emerson - Procedure

Answer 27

Longitudinal study of 60 new-born babies and their mothers from working class backgrounds in Glasgow.

Completed naturalistic observation and interviews each month for a year, and then again at 18 months.

Attachment was measured by separation protest and stranger anxiety.

Self report method used as mothers were asked how their children behaved in everyday situations

Question 28

What were the results of the Schaffer and Emerson 1964 research?

Answer 28

6-8 months - separation protest shown

9 months - stranger anxiety shown

10 months - 39% of infants formed multiple attachments

18 months - 87% of infants had formed multiple attachments (5+ attachments)

Mothers who were strongly attached responded quickly to their infant’s needs and interacted well, i.e. they showed sensitive responsiveness (opposite for weakly attached).

However, this didn’t have to be the mother - it could be another caregiver

Question 29

What conclusions were drawn from the Schaffer and Emerson 1964 research?

Answer 29

There is a common pattern of attachment to all infants, suggesting there is an element of biological control to attachment formation, therefore supporting Schaffer’s stages of attachment.

Sensitive responsiveness was shown to be key to making strong attachments - quality time” is needed

Question 30

What are the strengths of Schaffer and Emerson’s 1964 research?

Answer 30

High levels of mundane realism

Everyday life condition - high ecological validity

Infants’ behaviour is not likely to be affected by observers

Reduces experimenter bias, in creasing internal validity

Longitudinal design - The same children were followed up and observed regularly.

This reduces individual differences being a confounding variable, thus increasing the validity of the study

Question 31

Schaffer and Emerson - Population Validity

Answer 31

Lacks population validity.

Infants in the study all came from Glasgow and were mostly from working class families. In addition, the small sample size of 60 families reduces the strength of the conclusion we can draw from the study.

Cannot be generalised, and so is a limited explanation of attachment development.

Schaffer’s stages of attachment lack both population validity and temporal validity - parenting techniques have significantly changed since the 1950s, such as through the influence of Bowlby’s work on attachment, and so caution should be taken when generalising the findings.

Question 32

Schaffer and Emerson - Internal Validity

Answer 32

May lack internal validity.

It uses the self report method as the parents kept a daily diary.

Therefore the accuracy of data collection may not be the best.

The parents were busy so may not have included the full details.

They may also be subject to social desirability bias, in that they would skew their reports so they appear to be closer to what they see as socially acceptable or desirable.

There may also be demand characteristics.

Therefore, caution should be taken when placing confidence in the conclusions drawn from this study.

Question 33

Schaffer and Emerson - Subjectivity

Answer 33

The asocial stage cannot be studied objectively.

Children as young as 6 weeks lack basic motor co-ordination skills, meaning that we cannot establish whether their responses, such as ‘separation anxiety’, are deliberate.

Bremner drew the distinction between behavioural response and behavioural understanding.

Just because a child appears to have a bond with their primary caregiver, does not mean that such a bond exists or that the child understands the significance of such a bond.

Therefore, it is important not to draw causal conclusions!

Question 34

How do we traditionally see mothers?

Answer 34

Initially the main caregiver

Nurturing

Sensitive responsiveness - recognising and responding to an infant’s needs

Question 35

How do we traditionally see the father?

Answer 35

Biologically unsuitable to raise children on their own

According to traditional psychologists like Bowlby, they are the Bread Winner”

Question 36

What did Gross man find in 2002 about the relationship between each parent and their child?

Answer 36

Longitudinal study looking at both parents’ behaviour and its relationship with the attachments their children formed in adolescence

A high quality attachment with the mother was seen to be important, but not the father’s quality of attachment to their child

Question 37

What did Geiger find in his 1996 study about the role of the father?

Answer 37

Fathers are seen as playmates, but not as nurturing or attentive as mothers.

Acting as a playmate is still seen as important for the child’s development.

Question 38

What did Lamb find in the 2010 study of the roles of each parent?

Answer 38

Compared infants needs in positive and negative states

when in a positive state, the infant wants their father, however, when they are in a negative state, they want their mother.

Question 39

What did Lamb find in 2010 about sensitive responsive ness?

Answer 39

Fathers could show sensitive responsiveness (like the mother) if they are the primary caregiver, so it is not an innate biological factor only found in females as was once assumed

Question 40

What did Brown find in 2010 about attachments with the father?

Answer 40

Found that high levels of supportive co-parenting were related to secure attachments between infants and fathers, suggesting that the father does play an important role in ensuring secure attachment

Question 41

What has further research found to be a consequence of a se cure attachment with the father?

Answer 41

Better peer relationships in the future, less problematic behaviours, showing the positive impact a father can have on developmental outcomes

Question 42

How can the re search into the consequences of a lack of secure attachment with the father be criticised?

Answer 42

These studies were conducted with single mothers in a low socio-economic background, therefore meaning that the consequences” of an insecure attachment with the father resulting from the study may actually be due to social influence rather than absent father”

Question 43

How can research into the role of the father in general be criticised?

Answer 43

Research can be conflicting as some psychologists are looking at the father’s role in being the secondary attachment figure and others looking at him being the primary, meaning that the question of what is the role of the father” is hard to answer”

Question 44

Why aren’t fathers typically the primary attachment figures?

Answer 44

Gender roles

Biological - lack of oestrogen levels - perhaps women are predetermined to be the primary attachment figure

Question 45

What did Mac Callum and Golombok find in 2004 about the role of fathers as the secondary attachment figure?

Answer 45

Found that children brought up by same sex parents do not develop differently to heterosexual parents, so suggesting the father’s role to be a SECONDARY attachment figure is not important

Question 46

Why did some psychologists use animal studies of attachment instead of humans?

Answer 46

Biological continuity between animals and humans means that if findings are true for animals, they must also be true for humans

Using animals was considered to be more ethical than performing studies on humans

Animals breed faster than humans so psychologists can see if there are patterns across generations

Question 47

What is imprinting?

Answer 47

When young follow and form an attachment to the first large moving object they meet.

It is a form of attachment exhibited mainly by birds that leave the nest early, where by close contact is kept with the first large moving object encountered.

This attachment is suggested to be innate and irreversible

Question 48

Lorenz - Procedure

Answer 48

Split a clutch of graylag geese eggs into two groups, one was reared naturally by their mother, and the other was hatched in an incubator so the first moving object they would see would be Lorenz.

Once hatched, Lorenz placed the two groups of goslings together under an upturned box and then their behaviour was observed when they were exposed to Lorenz and their mother at the same time.

Question 49

Lorenz - Findings

Answer 49

Immediately after birth, the naturally reared goslings followed their mother and the incubated ones followed Lorenz.

Once released from the upturned box, the incubator reared goslings went straight to Lorenz rather than their mother - this effect was not reversible

Question 50

Lorenz - Critical Period

Answer 50

Lorenz also found the critical period for imprinting to be between 4-25 hours after hatching - if it didn’t happen in this time, they did not attach to a mother figure

Question 51

How did Sluckin criticise Lorenz’s critical period in 1996?

Answer 51

Replicated Lorenz’s study but with ducklings, keeping one duckling in isolation well beyond the critical period of 4-25 hours and found that it was still possible to imprint the duckling, criticising Lorenz’s findings as it shows the period to be more of a sensitive period” than a “critical period””

Question 52

Overall Criticisms of Animal Studies

Answer 52

Extrapolation issues - in the case of Lorenz’s research, attachment in geese is not necessarily the same as attachment in humans

Question 53

What are the practical applications of imprinting?

Answer 53

Micro-light technique - used with migratory birds to reintroduce birds into areas where they have become extinct

Farming - new-born lambs

Question 54

Harlow - Aim

Answer 54

To investigate the importance of comfort and contact in the formation of attachments.

Question 55

Harlow - Procedure

Answer 55

Separated 16 new-born rhesus monkeys from their mothers and raised them in caged isolation with two types of surrogate mother, one wire and one soft and towelled.

Used four conditions - towelling mother and milk, towelling mother and no milk, wire mother and milk, wire mother and no milk.

Harlow recorded the amount of time (no of hours) monkeys spent in each condition, and stress was induced by a loud noise to test for mother preference during stress.

A larger cage was also used to test the monkeys’ level of exploration

Question 56

Harlow - Results

Answer 56

Monkeys preferred the towelling mother regardless of whether she produced milk. Some stayed up to 22 hours per day there

Mon keys with only a wire surrogate mother had diarrhoea - a sign of stress.

When frightened by a loud noise, monkeys clung to the wired mother if available, and in the larger cage, the monkeys who were raised by towelling mothers explored more and visited their surrogate mothers more often whilst doing so

Question 57

Harlow - Conclusions

Answer 57

This led to the conclusion that contact comfort was more important than food in the development of attachments

Question 58

Harlow - Adulthood

Answer 58

Monkeys reared only by the wire surrogate mother were the most dysfunctional, but all, however, had difficulties socialising, were aggressive, showed abnormal mating behaviour, and as mothers, the monkeys neglected their children, were aggressive to them, and in severe cases, killed the

Question 59

Harlow - Critical Period

Answer 59

Harlow concluded that a mother had to be introduced within the first 90 days to form an attachment.

After this time it becomes impossible to form an attachment and the effects of early deprivation become irreversible

Question 60

What can be learnt from Har low’s 1959 study?

Answer 60

The amount of contact with a mother can shape the future of monkeys/humans, and a lack of contact can make them much more aggressive and cause huge amounts of trauma

shows the importance of maternal presence

Question 61

Animal Studies - Unethical

Answer 61

In the case of Harlow, some monkeys went on to kill their children, meaning that the experiment caused huge amounts of trauma not only for the monkey involved, but also for future generations of monkeys

Question 62

Animal Studies - Extrapolation Issues

Answer 62

Rhesus monkeys are naturally more aggressive than humans, and humans are not the same as geese and monkeys

Question 63

Animal Studies - Conflicting Results

Answer 63

Guiton questioned Lorenz’s findings, showing that imprinting is only temporary and as infants grow up they will become more independent and learn the norms from their peers

Question 64

Animal Studies - Practical Applications

Answer 64

Harlow’s research has significant practical value, especially in the design of zoos and the care of animals in shelters.

His research demonstrated the importance of attachment figures and intellectual stimulation, alongside contact comfort, which means that zoos should ensure that animals have the opportunity to form such attachments in order to ensure healthy development.

Question 65

Describe the Learning Theory:

Answer 65

Infants have no innate tendency to form attachments

They learn attachments because of food

All behaviour is acquired through experience through the process of association

Question 66

Cupboard Love

Answer 66

Where we form attachments to the person providing us with food.

Hunger is a primary drive and attachment is the result of an association formed between the caregiver and the satisfaction of primary drive reduction i.e. feeling less hungry

Question 67

How does classical conditioning explain attachment?

Answer 67

Before conditioning:

UCS (food) = UCR (happy baby)

NS (mother) = UCR (no response)

During conditioning:

NS (mother) + UCS (food) = UCR (happy baby)

After conditioning:

CS (mother) = CR (happy baby)

Question 68

How does operant conditioning explain attachment?

Answer 68

The caregiver rewards the baby by feeding him, so he associates the caregiver with the reward and repeats any action that brings her close.

This happens because food brings a feeling of pleasure (reward) to the baby. Food is the primary reinforcer.

By removing discomfort, it reinforces the behaviour that led to its arrival.

But food doesn’t come without the caregiver bringing it, so the caregiver becomes the secondary reinforcer - even without bringing food, the presence of the mother reduces discomfort and brings a feeling of pleasure.

The baby will therefore repeat any action, e.g. crying, which brings the caregiver close

Question 69

What is the cycle of attachment according to operant conditioning?

Answer 69

Baby performs action - cries due to hunger

Baby receives reward - food relieves hunger

The reward reinforces the action so the baby repeats it

Question 70

What is a positive reinforcer?

Answer 70

A reward which makes a good situation even better

Question 71

What is a negative reinforcer?

Answer 71

A reward which takes away an unpleasant situation

Question 72

What are the strengths of the learning theory explanation of attachment?

Answer 72

Dollard and Miller found in 1950 that babies were fed around 2000 times in the first year, providing ample opportunities for operant conditioning to occur

Question 73

Learning Theory - Conflicting Human Research

Answer 73

Brazleton et al emphasised the importance of interactional synchrony and reciprocity in the secure formation of attachments between a primary caregiver and infant - these are universal features of attachment.

Attachments form not to the person who spends the most time with the infant, but rather the person who is most attentive to the infant and deals with their signals most skilfully.

This means that the unconditioned stimulus of food is irrelevant in most cases!

Question 74

Learning Theory - Conflicting Animal Research

Answer 74

Harlow demonstrated that contact comfort was more important than food in the development of an attachment, where the baby monkeys formed a primary attachment to the cloth-bound mother, regardless of which mother was dispensing milk.

This suggests that there is no unconditioned stimulus (of food) and even if there is, it has very little influence upon the formation of attachments.

Question 75

Learning Theory - Limited Explanation

Answer 75

The emphasis on unconditioned and conditioned stimuli means that it is reductionist.

Interactional synchrony and reciprocity are both universal features of attachment and should be treated as such, as demonstrated by Feldman and Brazleton.

Learning theory does not account for these aspects and so is a limited explanation of only some aspects of attachment formation.