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Psychology - Paper 1 > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the sensory register?

A

takes in sensory information from our 5 senses

SR enables you to remember sensory stimuli after your exposure to the stimuli has ended

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2
Q

Coding in the SR

A

little coding and remains in its raw form

iconic register: memory for visual information

echoic register: memory for auditory information

haptic register: memory for touch

Crowder 1993 - information is coded according to its sense modality

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3
Q

Duration in the SR

A

up to 0.5 seconds

Sperling - increase delay after seeing grid and hearing tone

recall decreased

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4
Q

Capactiy of SR

A

not fully known

thought to be very large

Sperling - grid of digits

highly accurate recall

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5
Q

What is short term memory?

A

information that comes from paying attention to info from the sensory register

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6
Q

Coding in the STM

A

acoustic from rehearsal

can possibly be visual or semantic

Baddeley:

found that lists of words that sounded the same were harder to recall than dissimilar words

showing words tend to be coded acoustically

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7
Q

Evaluate Baddeley STM

A

help students revise effectively

artificial stimuli

lacks ecological validity

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8
Q

Duration in the STM

A

15 to 30 seconds, but can be extended

Peterson and Peterson:

presented trigrams for duration of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 seconds and asked them to count backwards in threes from a random three digit number to supress rehearsal

correct recall diminished the longer the delay -3 seconds 80% trigrams recalled

6 seconds 50% trigrams recalled -18 seconds less than 10% trigrams recalled

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9
Q

Evaluate Peterson STM

A

meaningless stimuli

low ecological validity

well controlled

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10
Q

Capacity in the STM

A

around 5-9 chunks (7+-2)

differences in capacity depending on the type of information

Jacobs 1887:

presented them with a sequence of letters/digits and recorded their memory span deciding that, for his research, a person’s memory span was the longest sequence of items recalled 50% of the time

on average 9.3 digits were correctly recalled in any order and 7.3 were recalled in correct order

Miller

-found that people could not only recall 7 individual items but also 7 chunks of information

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11
Q

Evaluate Jacobs STM

A

conducted long time ago

lack of strict control - less accurate

contradicting evidence - Cowan et al - capacity may be exaggerated

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12
Q

What is long term memory?

A

a potentially permanent memory store

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13
Q

Coding in LTM

A

semantically, meaning it has importance to us

also possibly visual and acoustic

Baddeley:

presented them with a group semantically similar or dissimilar

he found that they were better able to recall the semantically dissimilar words

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14
Q

Evaluate Baddeley LTM

A

help students revise effectively

artificial stimuli

lacks ecological validity

LTM isn’t only 20 minutes after, can be up to days

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15
Q

Duration in LTM

A

a lifetime

Bahrick et al

found that 48 years after leaving school they could put names to faces in their year book with 70% accuracy

when asked to free recall the names there was only a 30% accuracy

shows things can be remembered for a long time and can be recalled with the right cues

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16
Q

Evaluate Bahrick LT

A

meaningful stimuli

ecological validity

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17
Q

Capacity in LTM

A

unlimited

Standing et al

gave them 2560 photos for 5 or 10 seconds per picture

even 36 hours later they could identify the correct photo when paired with a new scene around 90% of the time

can be unlimited at least in picture form

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18
Q

MSM - Scientific Evidence

A

Glanzer and Cunitz - remembered the words at the beginning of the list, LTM and the end of the list, STM best

these findings support the distinction between STM and LTM and the role of rehearsal

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19
Q

MSM - MRI Scans

A

Beardsley 1997 -found that the pre-frontal cortex is active when individuals are involved with STM

Squire et al 1992 -found that the hippocampus is active when LTM is engaged

supports that they’re unitary stored

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20
Q

MSM - Students

A

can be used to give greater understanding of how memory works which can be helpful to people who rely heavily on their memories like students

the model shows students to pass info to LTM they need to repeat the info required

confirms the importance of effective revision if students want to do well in exams

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21
Q

MSM - Simplistic

A

Clive Wearing -had a virus that caused damage to the hippocampus, he had no STM and his LTM was affected, he could remember how to play piano but couldn’t remember events from a long time ago

STM and LTM as their own stores was too simple, so they should be considered to have multiple stores, led to the development of the working memory model

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22
Q

MSM - Rehearsa

A

suggests that to transfer between STM and LTM there must be rehearsal

plenty of evidence from everyday life that it can pass with out rehearsal by accident

doesn’t indicate how many LTMs are formed during our day to day existence

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23
Q

MSM - Processing

A

other research has shown memory is a product of processing info, not rehearsal

words requiring a shallow level of processing were less likely to be recalled

words requiring a deep level of processing were more likely to be recalled

demonstrates that how information is processed is important to memory contradicting that rehearsal is required therefore giving doubts about the multi store model

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24
Q

Episodic Memory

A

first suggested by Tulving 1972

gives individuals an autobiographical record of things that have happened to them what happened, where it happened and when it happened

they are constructed rather than being reproductions of what happened so they can be prone to errors and illusions

conscious effort to recall (explicit)

temporal lobe and frontal lobe

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25
Q

Semantic Memory

A

facts, meanings, concepts and knowledge about the external world

may have once had a personal context but now stand alone as simple knowledge

includes things such as types of food, capital cities. historical dates and functions of objects

conscious effort to recall (explicit)

hippocampus, temporal lobe and frontal lobe

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26
Q

Procedural Memory

A

the memory of how to do things

acquired through repetition and practice

composed of automatic sensorimotor behaviours

unconscious (implicit)

cerebellum, basal ganglia and motor cortex

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27
Q

LTM - Distinctions

A

other researchers disagree with Tulving’s three distinctions of LTM

Cohen and Squire

semantic and episodic memory should be understood as the same type of memory, called ‘declarative memory’

Kan et al

found that there was interdependence between episodic and semantic memory

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28
Q

LTM - Tulving

A

Tulving 1989

injected himself, his wife and 4 other people with radioactive gold to track brain blood flow,

he scanned them while they thought about historical facts or childhood experiences

3/6 participants had increased blood flow at the back of the brain when they thought about historical facts

where as when he thought about childhood experiences the blood flow increased at the front of the brain

activation of the different areas between the brain when recalling facts or episodes suggests they are separate

29
Q

LTM - Applications

A

has led to psychologists targeting specific kinds of memory to make people’s lives better

Belleville et al 2006

demonstrated that episodic memories could be improved with training in older patients with mild cognitive impairment

this shows the division of LTM has has tangible benefits to people with cognitive impairment making it a useful theory

30
Q

Who designed the Working Memory Model?

A

Baddeley and Hitch

31
Q

Central Executive

A

directs attention to particular tasks and determines how the brain’s resources are allocated to tasks

info goes to the CE from the senses or the LTM

has very little capacity

can’t deal with too many things at once

32
Q

Phonological Loop

A

stores a limited amount of speech based sounds

made up of inner ear and inner voice

Phonological Store

the inner ear

allows acoustically coded items to be briefly stored

Articulatory Control System

the inner voice

allows sub vocal repetition

33
Q

Episodic Buffer

A

was added in 2000

general store

takes info from LTM, the visuo-spatial sketch pad and the phonological loop to bind an ‘episode’

provides a sense of time sequencing r

ecords events and sends them to the LTM

34
Q

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

A

the inner eye

processes and stores mental images

helps us plan a special task including how to understand space

limited capacity

35
Q

WMM - Complex

A

the WMM attempts to explain how memory functions not only describe the structure of it like the MSM l

ed to greater understanding of cognitive dysfunction

for example knowledge of the phonological loop within reading has led to better understanding of dyslexia

led to tangible benefits for dyslexic students

36
Q

WMM - Practical Applications

A

has a lot of practical applications like with children who have ADHD

Alloway 2006

suggested methods to help children focus on tasks

37
Q

WMM - Supporting Evidence

A

D’Esposito et al 1995

found using fMRI that the prefrontal cortex was activated when verbal and spatial tasks we performed together but not when performed separately

suggesting that the brain area is associated with the CE functioning

Trojani and Grossi 1995

a brain damaged patient had impaired functioning of the phonological loop but had a perfectly functioning visuo spatial sketch pad

suggesting they’re two different stores

Gathercole and Baddeley 1993

found participants had difficulty simultaneously tracking a moving point of light and describing the angles of a hollow letter F because they both require VSSP functioning

other participants had little difficulty tracking the light when doing a verbal task indicating the VSSP and the PL are separate systems

confirms the existence of separate system

38
Q

WMM - Vagueness of CE

A

Eslinger and Demasio 1985

EVR had a cerebral tumour removed, when doing tests of reasoning, he performed well which suggested his CE was intact -but he had poor decision making skills which suggested it wasn’t wholly intact

suggests the concept of the CE is unsatisfactory, Baddeley even acknowledged this in 2003 the CE is the most important but the least understood component of the WMM””

39
Q

Interference Theory

A

suggests that forgetting is due to information in the LTM getting confused with other information during coding

40
Q

Proactive Interference

A

old information interferes with new information such as, if you’ve already learnt Spanish and are trying to learn French the Spanish may interfere with your ability to learn French

Jacoby et al 2001

argued proactive interference happens because there’s competition between the old information and the new information, the old information is stronger than the weak new information

41
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

new information interferes with old information

for example, the learning of a new registration number plate disrupts the recall of the old one

42
Q

Interference - Focus on Similar Info

A

only focuses on what happens when we forget information that is similar

doesn’t explain how forgetting info happens in the majority of real life setting, where things aren’t similar but are still forgotten

doesn’t explain most cases of forgetting in real life

43
Q

Interference - Application

A

can inform educators about the best way for students to revise

not revising similar things together as that is likely to interfere

44
Q

Interference - Research Support

A

Schmidt et al 2000

collected 211 former students a map of the surrounding area of their old school and were asked to name the streets -

there was a positive association with how many times the participants had moved out side of the area and the number of names forgotten

concluded that learning new street names made recalling the old street names more difficult, which demonstrates retroactive interference

45
Q

Retrieval Failure due to Absence of Cues

A

when information is placed in memory, their associated cues are stored at the same time

this theory suggests that the info is still available for recall but it cannot be accessed until the correct cues are in place

46
Q

Context Dependent Forgetting

A

refers to external cues that are different when encoding info and when retrieving it

47
Q

CDF - Evidence

A

Godden and Baddeley 1875

participants had to learn lists of 36 word and recall them either in water or on land

learn on land and recall on land-37%

learn underwater and recall underwater-32%

learn underwater and recall on land-23%

learn on land and recall underwater-24%

the higher percentage recall in the matched environments support the prediction that if the external cues are the same when encoding and recalling

48
Q

State Dependent Forgetting

A

refers to internal cues (states of awareness) that are different when encoding info and when retrieving it

49
Q

SDF - Evidence

A

Carter and Cassaday 1998

he gave them antihistamine or a placebo and were asked to learn and recall info in 4 different conditions surrounding their state at the time

the results showed a marked decrease in accuracy of recall in a memory test when the participants’ internal state did not match at the time of encoding and retrieval

50
Q

SDF - Baddeley’s Argument

A

he claimed that the contexts or states have to be very different to have an effect and subtle changes of environment or internal states will not have a strong effect

we must not make exaggerated claims about cue dependent forgetting based on evidence that alters both context and state in a dramatic way

51
Q

Cognitive Interview - Report Everything

A

tell witnesses that some people withhold info because they feel it’s irrelevant but they should try and tell the whole story and not leave anything out

the interviewer must be very patient and allow the witness to recall without interruptions

police interviews use the repetition technique meaning they ask the same few important questions frequently, they also tend to be impatient and want answers quickly

52
Q

Cognitive Interview - Reinstate Context

A

ask the witness to try and picture the circumstance and get them to visualise the scene

ask a lot about what was happening around them, what people were there, where the furniture was, how the witness was feeling at the time and how they reacted to the event

police usually ask witnesses to free recall events and then answer questions

53
Q

Cognitive Interview - Change Perspective

A

instruct the witness to recall the event from a different physical perspective, from another location than where they actually were during the event

this is to help disrupt their expectations of what usually happens in crimes

a police interview is more likely to focus on the witnesses perspective by only asking what the witness saw from where they were

54
Q

Cognitive Interview - Reverse Order

A

get witnesses to start at the end of the event and finish before the event happened

this should help stop witnesses recreating the even in relation to expectations and stereotypes about what normally happens in specific criminal events

the police would ask for free recall which would usually end in a chronological order of what happened

55
Q

Fisher et al 1987

A

added elements to the cognitive interview taking in to account social dynamics called enhanced cognitive interview (ECI)

brought in ideas of when to give eye contact, ways to reduce anxiety, to minimise distractions and asking the witness to speak slowly whilst asking open ended questions

56
Q

Weapon Focus - Loftus (Johnson + Scott) 1979

A

two conditions where one group heard a hostile argument followed by one emerging holding a letter opener with blood on it, the other was a harmless conversation followed by one emerging with a pen with grease all over his hand

they were asked to identify the culprit from photos

only 33% correctly identified them with the letter opener

49% correctly identified them with the pen condition

57
Q

Weapon Focus - Yuille and Cutshall (contrasts Loftus)

A

13 people who witnessed a shop keeper shooting a thief dead were interviewed 5 months after the event

these statements were then compared with the original police interviews

they were asked to rate how much anxiety they felt during the incident

those who reported high anxiety reported the highest level of accuracy 5 months later-88%

those who reported low level anxiety had lower level of accuracy-75%

58
Q

Weapon Focus - Internal Validity

A

critics suggested that Loftus was testing surprise and not anxiety

Johnson and Scott

showed an incident in a hairdresser’s, in one condition the suspect was carrying a handgun and in the other a raw chicken

in both conditions there were as many inaccuracies

suggesting it was more surprise than anxiety

59
Q

Weapon Focus - Consistency

A

Loftus 1979 and Yuille and Cutshall 1986 had completely different outcomes

possibly unreliable explanation

Valentine and Mesout 2009

took two groups, one with high anxiety and one with low anxiety, to London dungeons where they met an actor, who they were then asked to identify

High anxiety-17% accuracy

Low anxiety-75%accuracy

which was different to Yuille and Cutshall 1986

60
Q

Post Event Discussion - Gabbert et al

A

they witnessed a simulated crime event at 2 different angles which allowed different features of the event to be observed by each person

after watching the video they were asked to recall the event either alone or in pairs

71% of the witnesses who had PED reported at least one erroneous detail they acquired during the discussion

this was 0% for those in the control group

60% of participants believed the suspect was guilty even though they didn’t see a crime take place because of the angle

61
Q

PED - Validity

A

controlled nature questions the realism of the findings

outcome of their answers had no social impact so there was no pressure to conform

62
Q

PED - Application

A

inform the police to interview witnesses as soon as possible and ask them not to discuss what happened, even though it may be hard to enforce that

63
Q

PED - Supporting Research

A

similar outcomes

Wright, Self and Justice 2000

64
Q

Misleading Information - Loftus and Palmer (car crash)

A

45 students were divided in to 5 conditions and were asked to estimate how fast the cars where going after witnessing a crash using 5 different verbs

Smashed-40.5mph

Collided-29.3mph

Bumped-38.1mph

Hit-34mph

Contacted-21.8mph

the more aggressive the verb the higher the estimated speed was

65
Q

Misleading Information - Loftus and Palmer (broken glass)

A

150 students were split in to 3 conditions, one condition where asked the question with ‘smashed’, another with ‘hit’ and the other had no previous question

Smashed-Yes 16-No 34

Hit-Yes 7-No 43 -

No question-Yes 6-No 44

there wasn’t actually any broken glass but the leading questions made people think there was

66
Q

Misleading Information - Conflicting Evidence

A

although many studies have found the same thing with leading questions but one experiment found that leading questions did not change their eye witness testimonies

Loftus 1979

showed them slides of a theft of a large purse from a handbag

98% of the participants stated the right colour of the purse

they then read an inaccurate account and only 2 participants changed their answer to suit the account

67
Q

Misleading Information - Application

A

could be used to train people not to use leading questions when interviewing witnesses psychologists, with legal representatives, developed the cognitive interview

68
Q

Misleading Information - Ecological Validity

A

issue with showing films of car crashes compared with witnessing real life crashes

witnessing a real life crash is more likely to cause an emotional response, than watching a film, which is more likely to affect the memory of the witness

participants may have worked out the aims of the study finding of these experiments could tell us little about real life eye witness testimonies

Psychology - Paper 1 (5 decks)

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