Research methods Flashcards
State the 4 types of experiments
laboratory
field
natural
quasi
Outline and evaluate laboratory experiments
-researcher manipulates IV to measure its effect on DV
-conditions are heavily controlled to minimise the effects of extraneous variables
-prevents them from interfering with the DV
-participants are aware that they are taking part in the experiment, due to the contrived nature of the situation which feels unlike real-life
Evaluations:
Strength - high degree of control over extraneous variables can be achieved
-hence researcher can prevent extraneous variables from becoming confounding variable that negatively affects DV
-provides high degree of internal validity
-allows for conclusions about cause and effect be drawn between IV and DV
Limitation - lacks ecological validity
-due to artificial nature of environment of the experiment, results may not be representative of everyday life
-tasks lack mundane realism
-hence cannot be generalised beyond the setting of the research
-furthermore, unnatural nature of environment may cause change in behavior, as participant display demand characteristics
-reduces internal validity
Outline and evaluate field experiments
-carried out in natural conditions
-researcher manipulates Iv to to measure effect on DV
-any location that is not a lab
Evaluations:
strength - high ecological validity
-more natural setting
-results are more likely to be representative of everyday behavior
-however, natural setting means less control over extraneous variables
-can distort findings, which reduces validity, as a firm cause and effect relationship cannot be established
-uncertain if any other factors apart from the IV had an effect on DV
Limitation - ethical issues associated with it
-often participants do not know they are in a psychological investigations
-cannot give informed consent
-hence, research may involve a breach of their privacy rights
-however, a cost-benefit analysis can be conducted prior to investigation
-ensures perceived outcomes of investigation outweigh any personal costs to those involved
Outline and evaluate natural experiments
-experimenter cannot manipulate the IV
-so the DV is simply measured and judged as the effect of an IV
-due to this, participants cannot be randomly allocated to experimental groups as they are already pre-set, making them quasi-experiments. For instance, an experiment might investigate the relative levels of aggression observed in boys and girls in a primary school (the experimenter cannot manipulate who belongs to the ‘boy’ and ‘girl’ groups).
Evaluations:
strength - high ecological validity
-more natural setting
-results are more likely to be representative of everyday behavior
-however, natural setting means less control over extraneous variables
-can distort findings, which reduces validity, as a firm cause and effect relationship cannot be established
-uncertain if any other factors apart from the IV had an effect on DV
strength - demand characteristics are often not a problem, unlike laboratory experiments
-participants are less likely to adjust their natural behaviour according to their interpretation of the study’s purpose, as they might not know they are taking part in a study
-increases internal validity
limitation - possible for sample bias
-unable to randomly allocate participants to conditions
-(e.g. other extraneous variables that change with the pre-set IV group differences may confound the results
-meaning a causal IV-DV effect is unlikely).
limitation - ethical issues
-such as lack of informed consent commonly arises,
-as deception is often required;
-however, debriefing, once the observation/experiment has ended, is necessary.
Outline and evaluate quasi experiments
-like natural experiments, it contains a naturally occurring IV, but is one that already exists
-e.g. gender, age
-examines the effect of IV on DV
-can be conducted in a natural setting or laboratory
Evaluations:
strength -High ecological validity
-due to the lack of involvement of the researcher; variables are naturally occurring
-so findings can be easily generalised to other (real life) settings
-resulting in high external validity.
limitation -cannot prevent bias
-as the IV is a naturally occurring difference between the participants, the level of IV they belong to is pre-decided,
-hence psychologist is less certain that the IV alone has caused the effect
-other dispositional or environmental factors may have played a role
-however, quasi experiments allow researchers to compare different types of people easily
-provides insight into similarities and differences between these groups, which would not be ethically generated otherwise
-limitation - methodological issues
-often takes place under natural conditions
-no control over environment and extraneous variables
-makes it difficult to be sure that only the IV has affected DV
-however, when they take place in laboratory setting, extraneous variables are controlled
-strict conditions causes lower ecological validity
-findings cannot always be generalised to real life, as behaviour may not translate outside of the research environment
Outline and evaluate covert observations as an observational technique
-observing people without their knowledge
-may be informed of this post-observation
Evaluations:
strength - investigator effects are less likely
-investigator is hidden, so there is less chance of their direct/indirect behaviour having an impact on the performance of the participant
-hence less chance of demand characteristics, as they will not try to guess the aim of the observation if they are unaware of the observer’s presence
-participant behaviour will be more natural so increases internal validity
-furthermore, high ecological validity as natural behaviour is more representative of everyday life
-hence findings of observation can be generalised beyond the sample
limitation - ethical issues may arise
-participants are unaware of being observed
-cannot give fully informed consent or exercise their right to withdraw
-hence can be criticised for breaking ethical guidelines
-however, it s perfectly acceptable to observe behaviour in a public place (e.g. mall)
-hence, prior to the observation, investigator must assess whether privacy laws are being violated
Outline and evaluate overt observations as an observational technique
participants are aware of being observed
-e.g. publicly filming
Evaluations:
strength - more ethical than covert
-as participants are aware of observation, they can give fully informed consent and exercise their right to withdraw
-therefore, the reputation of the psychological research being ethical is protected
limitation - possibility of investigator effects
-bias can occur where unintentional behaviour of observer (e.g. body language, facial expressions) influences that of participant
-hence participants may change their behaviour by displaying demand characteristics
-may act in accordance with their perception of the research aims
-authentic behaviour not observed
-reduces internal validity of the observation
Outline and evaluate participant observations as an observational technique
-investigator conducting observation also takes part in the activity
Evaluations:
strength - researcher can obtain in-depth data
-as observer is in close proximity to participants, they can gain a unique insight into the phenomenon in question
-furthermore, observer is less likely to overlook any behaviour that an external observer might, due to nuances that can only be seen by becoming a participant in that activity
-therefore, this method observation allows a more comprehensive understanding of human behaviour
limitation - possibility of investigator effects
-bias can occur where unintentional behaviour of observer (e.g. body language, facial expressions) or their mere presence influences that of participant
-hence participants may change their behaviour by displaying demand characteristics
-may act in accordance with their perception of the research aims
-authentic behaviour not observed
-reduces internal validity of the observation
Outline and evaluate non-participant observations as an observational technique
-observer does not participate in the activity being observed
Evaluations:
strength - investigator effects are less likely
-observer is at distance or may not be visible
-unlikely that their behaviour will negatively impact that of the participants being observed
-hence behaviour is more likely to be natural
-furthermore, high ecological validity as natural behaviour is more representative of everyday life
-hence findings of observation can be generalised beyond the sample
limitation - data obtained may not be in-depth
-due to lack of proximity, observer may miss some details of interest
-hence unique insights which contribute to the understanding of human behaviour will be overlooked
Outline and evaluate naturalistic observations as an observational technique
-carried out in an unaltered setting
-observer does not interfere
Evaluations:
strength - high ecological validity
-naturally occurring behaviour is observed in the natural environment
-hence behaviour recorded is more likely to represent everyday life
-furthermore, it reflects spontaneous actions that occur incidentally
limitation -issues with ascertaining reliability
-naturally occurring behaviors are recorded as they unfold
-difficult for the exact same conditions to be replicated
-hence, test-retest method cannot be used with naturalistic observations, as researcher is not in control of variables
-often lacks applicability when this observational techno
Outline and evaluate controlled observations as an observational technique
-strict conditions
-extraneous variables controlled to avoid interference with IV
Evaluations:
strength -can be replicated to check for reliability
-high level of control
-standardized procedures, manipulation of IV and control over extraneous variables can be repeated by the same, or different researchers to assess reliability
limitation - low level of external validity
-behaviour is recorded in artificial environment where variables are subject to strict manipulation
-setting feels unnatural
-hence participant behaviour may be altered
-would not represent everyday behaviour
-causes ecological validity of findings to be questionable
Outline and evaluate structured observations as an observational technique
-researcher uses coded ‘schedules’ according to previously agreed formula to document behaviour and organised data into behavioural categories (when psychologists decide which specific behaviours must be examined)
-hence target behaviour is broken down into components that can be measured/observed
Evaluations:
strength - researcher can compare behaviour between participants and across groups
-use of operationalised behavioral categories makes the coding of data more systematic
-when there is more than 1 observer, the standardised behaviour schedule results in greater inter-observer reliability
-important for research methodologies to be consistent, so that accurate comparisons can be made
limitation -problems with ascertaining high internal validity
-researcher may miss critical behaviours duuring observation, which is pertinent to the aim of the investigation
-hence findings may not provide the full picture about the behaviours in question, as they could lack the finer details
-issue because what was intended to be measured was not achieved in its entirety
Outline and evaluate unstructured observations as an observational technique
-every instance of observed behaviour is recorded and described in as much detail as possible
-useful if the behaviour that the researchers are interested in does not occur very often
-more usual with naturalistic observation
Evaluations:
strength - richness of data obtained
-as behaviour is recorded in great detail, researhers can obtain a comprehensive view of human behaviour
-adds to internal validity of unstructured observations
limitation -
-prone to observer bias
-lack of objective behavioural categories
-hence observer may only record behaviour which is of subjective value to them
-not a valid representation of what is being displayed
-as a result, there could be a problem with inter-observer reliability, due to lack of consistency in the observation recorded
Outline and evaluate time sampling in observations
Outline and evaluate event sampling in observations
Outline and evaluate the use of behavioural categories in observations
What is a case study and why is it used?
-detailed analysis of an individual, event or a small group of people
-often used when rare behaviour is being investigated, which does not arise enough to warrant a larger study being conducted
-allows data to be collected and analysed on something that psychologists have very little understanding of
-hence acts as a starting-point for further research to take place
Evaluate the use of case studies in psychology
Limitation - only one individual or small group is studied
-difficult to generalise findings to wider population, as results are likely to be unique
-psychologists are unable to conclude with confidence that someone beyond the ‘case’ will behave the same way under similar circumstances
-therefore, lowers population validity
Limitation - research may be subjective
-especially when qualitative methods are used
-e.g. case study of Little Hans
-Freud developed an entire theory around what he observed
-no scientific or experimental evidence to support suggestions from his case study
-means that psychologists cannot be sure whether he objectively reported his findings
-hence, validity of conclusions are lowered, as research bias can interfere with the results of the study
Strength - variety of methods can be used
-helps to reduce sources of bias
-also offers alternative interpretations
-helps to gather more data to deepen our understanding of complex human behaviour
Strength - offers rich, detailed information about a situation
-unique insights can often be overlooked when only one variable is manipulated to measure its effect on another
-furthermore, case studies can be used where it is not ethical to experimentally examine
-e.g. case study of Genie (Rymer, 1993) allowed researchers to understand long-term effects of failure to form an attachment
-could not do this with a human participant unless it naturally occurred
Difference between aim and hypothesis
Aim - summarises purpose of the research
Hypothesis - a clear and precise prediction about the difference/relationship between the variables in the study
Difference between dependent and independent variables
DV - variable that research measures, and is affected when the IV changes
IV - variable that the researcher manipulates, and which is assumed to have a direct effect on the DV
What is operationalisation?
State the two types of experimental hypothesis
operationalisation - how a variable is clearly defined by the researcher (can be applied to IV, DV and co-variables)
directional/non-directional hypothesis
Outline the difference between directional and non-directional hypotheses and give an example of each
directional:
-predicts the specific nature of the difference between two or more variables
-key words: increase, decrease, higher, lower, positive, negative, more less
-e.g. There will be significant decrease in recall of names when age increases
non-directional:
-predicts that a difference will exist between two or more variables, but does not state the nature of it
-key word: difference
-e.g. There will be a significant difference in recall of names when age increases
What is a null hypothesis
states that there is no difference between groups or no relationship between variables
What are the two types of questionnaires?
open question
closed question