Psychopathology Flashcards
Outline and evaluate ‘deviation from social norms’ as an definition of abnormality
a person is seen as abnormal if their thoughts/behaviour violate unwritten rules of what is acceptable in society
Evaluation:
limitation - cultural relativism:
-what may be abnormal in one country may be seen as normal in another
e.g. homosexuality is illegal in about 75 countries, so it is seen as abnormal
-however, the rest of the world thinks homosexuality is normal
-therefore, abnormality is not standardised, as there is no global standard for defining behaviour
limitation - fails to offer a complete explanation in its own right
-mediated by the degree of severity and context
-e.g. deviating from a social norm once may not be an issue, but persistent repetition may be a cause for concern
limitation - hindsight bias
-social norms change over time
-e.g. homosexuality was illegal in the UK until 1973, but is now viewed as normal
-means that historically, there may have been violations of human rights due to institutionalisation of people
-could be argued that diagnoses upon those grounds may have been given as a form of social control over minority groups as a means to exclude those that do not conform to society (Szas, 1974)
Outline and evaluate ‘failure to function adequately’ as an definition of abnormality
person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life and live independently in society
may cause personal suffering and distress but also may cause discomfort for other people
Evaluation:
limitation - stems from individual differences
-e.g. one person with OCD may exhibit excessive rituals and be ate to work, whereas another person with OCD could be on time to work as they find time to exhibit excessive rituals
-therefore, despite the same behavioural symptoms, each person would be diagnosed differently according to this definition
-reduces validity of the definition
strength - considers the subjective personal experiences of the patient
-considers thoughts and feelings of the person displaying symptoms
-takes into account personal viewpoints of the sufferer
-hence it is a useful model for assessing psychopathological behaviour
limitation
-difficult to distinguish between failure to function adequately and deviation from social norms, if a symptom can be applicable to both
limits personal freedom
-difficult to ascertain whether this behaviour should be considered maladaptive
Outline and evaluate ‘statistical infrequency’ as an definition of abnormality
behaviour is seen as abnormal if it statistically uncommon or not seen often in society
abnormality is determined by looking at the distribution of that behaviour across society
e.g. the average IQ is approximately 100 and 65% of the population have an IQ between 85-115
95% of the population have an IQ between 70-130
a small % of the population (around 5%) have an IQ above 130 or below 70, and this would be seen as abnormal due to not being commonly seen in society
Evaluation:
limitation - some statistically infrequent behaviour may be seen as desirable traits
-e.g. an extremely high IQ would be classified as abnormal due to being uncommon in society, but it would still be hugely celebrated
-conversely, depression is very common in society, but not desirable
-therefore, this definition needs to identify those behaviours which are both infrequent and undesirable
limitation - labelling as abnormal can be unhelpful
-e.g. someone with a low IQ may be able to live quite happily without causing distress to anyone
-however, the label of ‘abnormal’ may be an invitation to discrimination or create a poor self-image
-therefore, being labelled as statistically infrequent may cause more distress than the condition itself
limitation - misdiagnosis
-behaviours that are statistically frequent (e.g. 10% of people experience depression at some point in their lives), so it considered ‘normal’ although it is a disorder
-conversely, people with a high IQ are considered abnormal because it is uncommon, despite it being a desirable trait
Outline and evaluate ‘deviation from ideal mental health’ as an definition of abnormality
Jahoda (1958) suggested that abnormality should be determined by the absence of 6 certain characteristics.
-accurate perception of reality
-self-actualisation
-resistance to stress
-positive attitude towards self
-autonomy/independence
-environmental mastery
Therefore if an individual does not demonstrate one of these criteria, they are considered abnormal
Evaluations:
limitation - cultural relativism
-different cultures have different views of what should be the criteria for ideal mental health
-e.g. emphasis on personal growth may be seen as too self-centred n countries that value community over individuality
-however, independence within collectivist cultures is not fostered, making the definition culture bound
limitation - unrealistic criteria
-there are times where everyone experiences stress and negativity
-according to this definition, they are considered abnormal, irrespective of their circumstances
-how many must be absent for diagnosis to occur must also be questioned
strength - takes a positive and holistic stance
-definition focuses on positive and desirable behaviours
-comprehensive
-covers a broad range of characteristics that may affect health and well-being
Outline the behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of phobias
behavioural:
-avoiding the stimulus
-sometimes, person comes face to face with phobia, and they experience panic
-sometimes, they may experience freezing’ if the fear is so intense, which is part of the fight or flight response
emotional:
-excessive and unreasonable fear, anxiety or panic
-triggered by the presence or anticipation of the specific stimulus
cognitive:
-person’s selective attention makes them fixated on the object
-they will find it difficult to direct their attention elsewhere
-may have irrational thinking
Outline the behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of depression
behavioural:
-reduction in energy and constantly feeling tired
-disturbed sleep pattern
-changes in appetite
emotional:
-feeling worthless
-lack of interest in everyday activities
cognitive:
-less able to concentrate
-tend to focus on the negative
Outline the behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of OCD
behavioural:
-repetitive compulsions used to manage anxiety
emotional:
-anxiety and depression caused by the interruption to daily life
cognitive:
-obsessive thoughts
-selective attention directed towards the anxiety-generating stimuli
Explain the different types of phobias
simple/specific: when a person fears a certain object in the environment
categories: animal phobias, injury phobias, situational phobias and natural phobias
social phobias:person feels anxiety in social situations, e.g. giving speeches, as the sufferer may feel as thought they are inadequate and will be judged
categories: generalised phobias, interaction phobias and performance phobias
agoraphobia: fear of public spaces and sufferers may experience panic attacks
Outline and evaluate the behavioural approach to explaining phobias, through the two-process model
-proposed by Mowrer (1947)
-acquisition of phobias is through classical conditioning
-maintenance of phobias is through operant conditioning
Classical conditioning:
-process of learning by associating two stimuli with each other to condition a response
-explains how we associate a neutral stimulus (something we do not fear) with an unconditioned stimulus (something that triggers a response)
e.g. a lift is not something people fear, but being trapped is something they fear, which causes them to develop a phobia of lifts, following a single incident of being trapped in a lift
Watson and Rayner (1920)
Aim: to investigate whether a fear response .could be learned through classical conditioning in humans
Method:
-participant was an 11-month old baby called ‘Little Albert’
-before the experiment, researchers noted that Albert showed no response to various objects, in particular a white rat
-to examine whether a fear response could be induced, Watson and Rayner struck a metal bar with a hammer behind Albert’s head every time he went to reach for the rat
-causes a loud noise that startled him
-did this three times
Results: Thereafter, Little Albert cried whenever he saw the white rat
Conclusion:
-experiment demonstrated that a fear response could be induced through the process of classical conditioning in humans
-Little Albert also developed a fear towards similar objects, e.g. a white Santa Claus beard
-shows that he has generalised his fear to other white furry objects
Operant Conditioning:
-classical conditioning explains why we develop phobias, but not why they do not decay over time
-most phobias are long-term
-explains how phobias are maintained
-phobias can be negatively reinforced, where behaviour is strengthened as the unpleasant consequence is removed
-continuing to avoid lifts and taking stairs will maintain the phobias of lifts
PEEs for the behavioural approach
Strength - research support
-Watson and Rayner (1920) did a study on Little Albert
-findings supported the idea of classical conditioning
-however, as this was a case study, results cannot be generalised to other children or even adults in the initialisation of their phobias
Strength - application to therapy
-behaviourist ideas have been used to develop treatments, e.g. systematic desensitisation and flooding
–these techniques have been successful in treating phobias, so prove the effectiveness of the behavioural approach
Limitation - ignores role of cognition
-phobias can develop due to irrational thinking, not just learning
-furthermore, the cognitive approach has led to development of the CBT, which has been more successful ithan behavioural treatments
Limitation - claim that it is not a complete explanation of phobias
-Bounton (2007) suggests that evolutionary factors could play a role in phobias
-e.g. avoidance of stimulus like snakes were a survival strategy for our ancestors to prevent pain/death
-consequently, some phobias may not be learned, but are innate (known as biological preparedness)
What are the two behavioural treatments for phobias
flooding
Systematic desensitisation
Outline systematic desensitisation as a behavioural treatment for phobias
-counter-conditioning to unlearn the maladaptive response to a situation/object, by eliciting a different response (relaxation)
-has 3 critical components
-fear hierarchy
-relaxation training
-reciprocal inhibition
-first the client and therapist form a fear hierarchy by ranking different situations involving the phobia from least to most terrifying
-client is then taught relaxation techniques, e.g. breathing techniques, progressive muscle relaxation techniques or mental imagery techniques
-final stage is where they are exposed to the phobic situation while relaxed
-according to the theory of reciprocal inhibition, two emotional states cannot exist at the same time, so the client cannot be both anxious and relaxed
-relaxation will overtake fear
-client starts at bottom of fear hierarchy and works their way up
-when they are completely relaxed in the most feared situation, the systematic desensitisation has been successful, as a new response to the stimulus has been learned, replacing the phobia
Evaluate systematic desensitisation as a behavioural treatment for phobias
Strength - research evidence
-McGrath et al. (1990) found that 75% of patients with phobias were successfully treated using systematic desensitisation
-particularly true when using in vivo techniques in which the patient came into direct contact with the feared stimulus, rather than simply imagining (in vitro)
Strength - research evidence
-Gilroy et al. (2002) examined 42 patients with arachnophobia
-each patient was treated using three 45-minute long systematic desensitisation sessions
-when examined 3 months and 33 months later, the systematic desensitisation group was less fearful than the control group (who were only taught relaxation techniques)
-proves that systematic desensitisation is effective for phobias in the long-term
Strength - more ethical than flooding
–SD causes less distress than flooding, as being gradually exposed to a fear-inducing stimulus leads to less psychological harm
-reflected in the high number of patients who persist with SD providing low attrition rates
-furthermore, considered a more appropriate technique for people with learning difficulties or suffer from severe anxiety disorders
-learning the relaxation techniques can be a positive and pleasant experience for them
Limitation - not effective for all types of phobias
-people with phobias that are not developed through personal experiences may be more difficult to treat with systematic desensitisation
-certain phobias are not learned, and have an evolutionary survival benefit
-hence SD is ineffective in treating phobias that have an innate basis
Outline flooding as a behavioural treatment for phobias
-immediate exposure to the fear-inducing stimulus
-done in safe and controlled manner over an extended period of time
–person is unable to avoid (negatively reinforce) stimulus
-fear is a time-limited response, so eventually it will subside
-anxiety eventually decreases due to continuous exposure
-may begin to feel a calm sense of relief as a new positive association to the stimulus is created
Evaluate flooding as a behavioural treatment for phobias
Strength - cost-effective compared to SD
-Ougrin (2011) found it’s equally effective to other treatments, including systematic desensitisation and cognition therapies
-takes much less time in achieving these results
-patients cure their phobias more quickly, hence health-service providers do not have to fund longer options
Limitation - often highly traumatic
-purposefully elicits a high level of anxiety
-Wolpe (1969) recalled a case where patient required hospitalisation due to intense anxiety
-therefore, initiating flooding treatment may be a waste of time/money, as many patients are too afraid of the experience to finish treatment
-however, it is not unethical, as patients give fully informed consent, despite feeling stressed partway through the course of treatment
Limitation - ineffective in treating all phobias
-is suggested that social phobias are caused by irrational thinking, rather than unpleasant experiences or learning through classical conditioning
-therefore, more complex phobias may be more responsive to other forms of treatment like the cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) rather than behavioural approaches
Limitation - symptom substitution
–although one phobia may be removed through counter-conditioning, another may replace it
-even if symptoms and treated and removed, the underlying cause may remain and resurface under a new guise
-however, research in this area is mixed and heavily disputed by psychologists
Limitation - subject to environmental determinism
-ignores role of free will in the formation of phobias
criticised for being overly simplistic in its reduction of human behaviour to a simple stimulus-response associate
-e.g. not every person bitten by a dog will develop a phobia of dogs, so other processes must be in play
-therefore, role of cognition is not taken into account either
Another name for irrational thinking
cognitive distortions
