Approaches Flashcards
Outline the origins of psychology timeline
1879:
-Wundt opened first experimental psychology lab
-before this, psychology was only regarded as an experimental branch within philosophy
1900:
-Freud established psychodynamic approach
-highlighted importance of unconscious mind on behaviour
-developed his own therapy called psychoanalysis
1913:
–Watson and Skinner established behaviourist approach
-criticised Freud and Wundt
-argued that true scientific psychology is the study of directly observable and measurable phenomena
-believed all behaviour is learnt
1950s:
-Rogers and Maslow developed humanistic approach
-rejected psychodynamic and behaviourist approaches
-emphasised importance of free will by trying to understand the whole person
1960s:
-cognitive approach emerged with the introduction of the computer
-study of mental processes
-belief that we can make inferences about how the mind works based on results from laboratory experiments
1980s:
-biological approach became the most dominant approach
-due to advances in psychology
-e.g. brain scans = increased understanding of human brain
2000:
-cognitive neuroscience has emerged in the forefront of psychology
-brings together biological and cognitive approaches
-investigates how biological structures influences mental states
significance of Wilhelm Wundt and introspection
-Wundt founded the Institute of Experimental Psychology
-published one of the first books on psychology
-helped establish the subject as an independent branch of science
Wundt’s approach = structuralism
-use of the scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception
-use of introspection in controlled studies
-use of controlled environments to establish general theories about mental processes
-Wundt identified higher mental processes (learning, language, emotions, etc.) that could not be studied in a strictly controlled manner
-development of the field of cultural psychology was based on general trends in behaviour of groups of people
Introspection:
-enables the observation of our inner world
-Wundt suggested that with training mental processes, e.g. memory and perception could be observed systemically as they occurred using introspection
-e.g. observing an object and being asked to reflect on how they perceive it
-Wundt’s participants were given a carefully controlled stimuli
-e.g visual images or auditory tones
-were asked to provide a description of their inner processes
-made it possible to compare the results in response to the same stimuli
-hence can establish theories on perception
Evaluate introspection, including Wundt’s role in the emergence of psychology as a science
-discussion of the subjectivity of Wundt’s methods in contrast to the objectivity of the scientific process and the difficulty modern psychologists have trying to objectively study unobservable matter
-introspective methods were not reliably reproduced/Wundt’s difficulty with replication due to subjectivity * focus on mental processes through introspection can be seen as a forerunner of the cognitive approach *
-discussion of the validity of introspection – many aspects of our minds are outside of our conscious awareness, eg research by Nisbett & Wilson, 1977; however, it is still sometimes used in modern scientific psychological research, eg Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003
greater contributions to the development of psychology by early behaviourists, eg Pavlov, than by Wundt, as they produced reliable findings with explanatory principles that were generalisable – much more in keeping with the scientific approach.
What are the key assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
-psychologists should only study observable, quantifiable behaviour
–all behaviour is learned
-humans are no different to animals and should not be regarded as more complex
-research on animal behaviour is directly relevant to humans
Explain what classical conditioning is, in terms of Ivan Pavlov’s method
-type of learning in which an existing involuntary reflex is associated with a new stimulus
-tested theory using dogs
-conditioned dogs to associate the sound of bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus)
-led to dogs producing a salivation response (conditioned response) at the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus)
-was seen even in the absence of food
-hence repeated exposure to an event leads to a learned and uncontrollable behaviour
-can be used to explain how phobias are acquired and how attachments develop
Explain operant conditioning in terms of Skinner’s research. Include the different types of reinforcement
-learning through the consequences of our actions
-3 types of reinforcement affect behaviour
-positive reinforcement: behaviour followed by reward is likely to be repeated
-negative reinforcement: behaviour followed by removal of adverse consequence it is likely to be repeated
-punishment: behaviour followed by unpleasant consequence is less likely to be repeated
-Skinner created the Skinner box to examine operant conditioning in rats/pigeons
-animal would move around cage
-when it pressed the lever by accident, it would be rewarded with food pellet
-animal learned through positive reinforcement that pressing lever will give it food
-hence learnt a new voluntary behaviour that is repeated to receive reward again
evaluate the behaviourist approach
Strength - significant contributions to the emerging recognition of psychology as a science
-experimental methods used by Pavlov and Skinner rejected the earlier emphasis in psychology on introspection
-encouraged research that focused on more objective dimensions of behaviour
-According to behaviourists, this emphasis on the scientific method has led to an increasingly valid and reliable understanding of human behaviour
-these methods have also helped psychology gain credibility and status as a scientific discipline
-hence attracts more funding and research opportunities.
Strength - behaviourists were influential in encouraging the use of animals as research subjects
-they believed that the learning processes in humans and animals are very similar
-consequently, Pavlov conducted research using dogs, and Skinner used rats and pigeons
-furthermore, using non-human animals in research gives experimenters more control over the process, without demand characteristics or individual differences influencing findings
-however, many consider using animals in experiments to be unethical as there is less concern about protection from harm for non-human subjects
-furthermore, some argue that findings from animal experiments are not generalisable to human behaviour
-Skinner’s operant conditioning theory may provide an understanding of rat behaviour, but little about human behaviour.
Strength - important contributions to our modern understanding of human mental illness
-e.g. many phobias are thought to be the result of earlier unpleasant learning experiences
-consequently, this understanding has helped psychologists develop therapies, such as systematic desensitisation, that attempt to re-condition a patient’s fear response
-furthermore, some addictions such as gambling can be better understood through operant conditioning
-e.g. the rewards of gambling could be seen to reinforce the destructive behaviour
-demonstrates that the behaviourist approach has many real-world applications in the understanding and treatment of atypical behaviour
Limitation - criticised for its limited view regarding the origins of behaviour
-ignores alternative levels of explanation including the role of cognition and emotional factors in influencing behaviour
-however, Skinner countered this argument
-stated that for behaviour to be investigated scientifically, it had to be directly measurable and observable, which cognitions are not
-furthermore, he said that even the most complex of human interactions could be explained using operant conditioning principles of learning by the consequences of our actions to either repeat or cease the behaviour
Outline the psychodynamic approach: role of unconscious and structure of personality
-Sigmund Freud proposed the notion of the unconscious
-three main assumptions:
-personality (psyche) has ID, ego and superego
-it is constructed by the passage through psychosexual stages of development throughout infancy and adolescence
-unconscious conflicts in the psyche are mediated by processes called defence mechanisms
Role of the unconscious:
-according to the psychodynamic approach, there are vast parts of the mind that are inaccessible to conscious awareness
-traumatic events or childhood memories are repressed into the unconscious mind and kept hidden from conscious awareness
-however, psychodynamic theorists suggest that such events or memories are never truly forgotten
-can be explored through psychoanalysis
-can reveal itself in several ways including dreams, fantasies and Freudian slips
Structure of the Personality:
ID:
-pure erotic energy
-is governed by the pleasure principle
-consists of primal urges
-only seeks pleasure and instant gratification
-operates on instinct and is the part of the personality which is present at birth
Ego:
-governed by the reality principle
-tames the id and balances the demands of the superego
-ego is absent at birth
-arises in response to control by others, specifically parents during the anal stage of development at around two years old
Superego:
-governed by the morality principal: our sense of right and wrong
-characterised by the ‘inner voice’ that tells us when we have crossed into the boundaries of unacceptable behaviour
-superego is the internalised parent
-develops in response to parental discipline around five years old
Outline defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach
Repression occurs when a traumatic or distressing memory is forced out of conscious awareness and into the unconscious mind.
Denial involves a refusal to accept truth or reality of situation, acting as if nothing distressing has happened
Displacement is when the feelings towards a target individual cannot be expressed directlv and are therefore transferred onto someone/something else
Outline the psychosexual stages
Oral:
-0-2 years
-focus is mouth
-infant experiences pleasure through sucking and biting
-unresolved conflict = oral fixation: might engage in behaviours like smoking, nail-biting, etc.
Anal:
-2-3 years
-focus is anus
-child becomes aware that they must undergo potty training to control their bowel movements
-Ego develops in this stage
-unresolved conflict = anal fixation:
1) Anal retentive:
-might become an obsessive perfectionist
2) Anal expulsive:
-might be messy and thoughtless.
Phallic:
-3-6 years
-focus is genitals
-infant boys must overcome their unconscious sexual desire for their mother by identifying with their father. It is during this stage that the Superego develops.
Latent:
-6-puberty
-focus is hidden
-sexual energy which has driven the previous stages now becomes latent
-allows individual to focus on the world around them and form friendships
Genital:
-puberty+
-focus is forming heterosexual relationships
-psychosexual energy takes residence in the genitals, to be directed towards formation of adult relationships
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach
Strength - highly influential in both the practice of psychology and in our understanding of how culture operates
-evidence for these ideas is almost entirely clinical rather than empirical
-its scientific credibility is questionable
-but few would deny that there are, in fact, unconscious motives and demonstrable defence mechanisms
-these existential realities have allowed Freudian theory to maintain some hold on psychotherapeutic techniques, like psychoanalysis
-which is still used to treat patients with deep-seated psychological health issues today
Strength - research support for effectiveness of psychoanalysis
-Biskup et al. (2005) reported a naturalistic study of 36 patients
-demonstrated that at the end of psychoanalytic therapy, 77% of the patients showed clinically significant improvements
-Furthermore, Bachrach et al. (2000) conducted meta-analysis of every major study of the effectiveness of choanalytic treatment
-found that all studies show that psychoanalysis is an effective treatment for many patients
-suggests that despite a lack of empirical support for psychodynamic theories, psychodynamic treatments (e.g. psychoanalysis) are effective at treating a range of psychological disorders
Limitation - Freud’s ideas demonstrate a significant gender bias
-his obsession with the Oedipus complex is intensely androcentric
-many would claim this makes them irrelevant to an understanding of women
-however, female psychoanalysts like Melanie Klein have shown that even gender-biased theories can be adapted to provide useful insights into female behaviour
-hence, while demonstrate a significant gender bias, his work has been used to develop important and influential theories that apply to women
Limitation - psychoanalytic theory has been criticised for being culturally biased
-all of Fred’s patients came from the Viennese middle-class
-his universal generalisations were based on this highly unrepresentative sample
-there is considerable evidence to suggest that it is only suitable for cultures where the discussion of personal problems is encouraged
-casts doubt on the effectiveness of any therapeutic approach, for other cultures, based on psychoanalytic ideas
-furthermore, mostly uses case studies
-does not use controlled experiments to collect empirical evidence
-hence considered far less scientific than other approaches.
Limitation - suffers from psychic determinism
-suggests that human behaviour is governed by unconscious drives and early traumatic childhood experiences which are repressed into the unconscious mind
-hence suggests an individual does not have free will over their behaviour
-furthermore, it lacks falsifiability
-e.g. if male individual refutes the idea that he will have gone through this stage of psychosexual development in his youth, psychodynamic theorists would counter this with the supposition that they were in denial
-lacks scientific credibility since the initial claim cannot be refuted
Limitation - not empirically testable
-e.g. the human mind cannot be dissected to reveal the id, ego and superego
-therefore is not scientific in its approach to explaining human behaviour
-as the understanding of behaviour relies solely on the subjective interpretation of the psychoanalyst
Outline the Oedipus / Electra complex
Oedipus complex
-boys desire closeness with mother
-father is a rival who the boy wants out of the way
-boys fear that father will castrate them (castration anxiety)
-to reduce anxiety boys use defence mechanisms and identify with their father
-reduces threat and the boy internalises male characteristics and comes out of the Oedipus complex
Electra complex
-girls desire closeness with the opposite sex parent i.e. their father
-girls do not fear their mother as they believe that they have already been castrated
-instead they experience penis-envy
-girls fear losing their mother’s love
-to reduce anxiety girls identify with their mother
-reduces the threat and girls internalise female characteristics and come out of the Electra complex
Outline the humanistic approach, including Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943)
-assumes that every individual can assert free will and have a choice in how they behave
-means that everyone can consciously control and influence their own personal destiny, even within the constraints that exist in life from outside forces
Hierarchy (ascending order):
Physiological needs:
-food, breathing, sleep, homeostasis
Safety and security:
-house, employment, family, health, morality
Love and belonging:
-friendship, family, sense of connection
Self esteem:
-confidence, achievement, respect for others
Self-actualisation:
-creativity, acceptance of facts, lack of prejudice
-provides the possibility of true self-awareness and an honest relationship with the realities of an imperfect world
Evaluate the humanistic approach
Strength - has had a major influence on psychological counselling
-contemporary therapists use Rogers’ ideas of unconditional positive regard and help clients work toward self-awareness
-makes it a useful theory with real-world applications
-impossible to imagine modern client-centred therapy without its insights and techniques.
Limitation - evidence for existence of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is empirically thin
-however, is to be expected from an approach that disputes the validity of empirical research
-there is some validation provided by clinical data, with some surprising confirmation from the realm of management studies (Maslow, 1965; Rogers and Roethlisberger, 1982)
-however, the theoretical emphasis on individual achievement raises significant concerns about possible cultural bias
-as this is not desirable in every culture
-may only be a feature of Westernised or individualistic nations
Limitation - hard to scientifically test the effectiveness of humanistic counselling
-as it can’t be done in an experimental context
-people believe they benefit from counselling
-there is considerable empirical evidence available to support the effectiveness of counselling methods derived from Rogers’ model, like CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy) and ACT (acceptance and commitment therapy)
-however a cause-effect relationship cannot be established between the treatment and outcome
-hence lacks scientific certainty about the validity of the theory
Limitation - criticised for offering an unrealistic view of human nature
-psychologists point to the more sinister aspects of human behaviour and argue that the humanistic approach focuses on
‘growth-orientated’ behaviour whilst ignoring an individual’s capacity for self-destruction
-consequently, it is argued that the focus on self-development overlooks possible situational forces that may provide a more realistic explanation of everyday human behaviour
Issues and Debates
Strength - idiographic approach
-focuses on subjective human experience whilst making no attempts to generate universal laws
-holistic stance compared to other approaches
-furthermore, concept of free will is central to humanistic thinking
-advocates of this approach believe that behaviour is a choice, rather than determined by outside forces
-hence an individual can directly control and influence their own destiny
Outline the Social Learning Theory and the study associated with it
-learning is a social phenomenon
-occurs through the observation and imitation of behaviour performed by role models, who model behaviour in a social environment
-SLT recognises the importance of cognitive processes - mediational processes
-rejects notion that learning is purely the outcome of a stimulus-response loop
-if the person observing the behaviour sees the person as a ‘role model’, they will identify with them
-identification: person associates with the qualities, characteristics and views of role models, to become more like that person
-Shutts et al. (2010) suggests that for children, the age and gender similarity to models is an important determinant of imitation
-this cognitive appraisal process clearly distinguishes SLT from the more deterministic behaviourist approach.
-SLT is defined by four distinct mediational processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
-if these factors are implemented, imitation (i.e. copying of what has been observed) can take place
-if the observed behaviour is rewarded, imitation is more likely
-This learning from the observation of others is what Bandura called vicarious reinforcement
Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) - The Bobo Doll Experiment
Aim: To investigate whether aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles.
Method: 72 children (36 male and 36 female) aged between 3 and 6 years old were put into one of three groups for 10 minutes:
1) Aggressive model:
-child played in room while an adult hit and shouted at a “Bobo doll”: a plastic inflatable toy doll which was heavy at the bottom and wobbled when hit
-further sub-divided by the gender of the child and the adult model, creating four conditions:
-male child, male role-model
-male child, female role-model
-female child, male role-model
-female child, female role-model
2) Non aggressive model:
-child played in room while an adult played quietly
-group was further sub-divided once again by gender of the child and the adult model, creating another four conditions
3) Control group - the child did not see a model.
-the children were deliberately frustrated by being taken into another room where they were told that they could not play with any toys
-then, they were placed alone in a room with a range of aggressive toys (mallet, gun) and non-aggressive toys (dolls, crayons) and the Bobo doll for twenty minutes whilst being observed.
Results:
-children who saw the aggressive model produced more aggressive acts than those in either of the other two groups
-boys imitated same-sex models more than girls
-girls imitated more physical aggression if they saw male models, and more verbal aggression if they saw female models
Conclusion: Aggressive behaviour can be learned, in children, through observation and imitation of a model.
Evaluate the social learning theory
Strength - plentiful research support
-e.g. Fox and Bailenson (2009) found humans were more likely to imitate computer-generated ‘virtual humans’ who were similar to themselves
-Rushton and Campbell (1977) found that same-sex modelling significantly increased the number of female observers who agreed to, and then actually did, donate blood;
-Myers (2015) confirmed the importance of vicarious learning for the effectiveness of workplace teams
-these studies demonstrate support for different aspects of SLT, including modelling and vicarious reinforcement
-adds credibility to key principles of this theory.
Limitation - methodology used in research support has been criticised
-Bandura made extensive use of the experimental laboratory method
-artificial, strictly-controlled and contrived in its very nature
-hence has possibility of demand characteristics occurring
-children may pick up on cues in the environment, guess the aim of the investigation and adjust their behaviour accordingly
-lowers internal validity of the study
-therefore, the participants may have been acting in an aggressive way towards the Bobo doll because that is what they thought was expected of them rather than it being a genuine and new learned behaviour
Strength - application to real-world issues
-it has long been a feature in explanations of criminal behaviour (Sykes and Matza, 1957)
-it has also been used to examine and evaluate the effectiveness of advertising
-Andsager et al. (2006) found that identification with a character or example may increase the likelihood that audiences will model behaviour presented in an anti-alcohol message
-consequently, the principles of SLT can be used to provide a positive impact on promotional health campaigns
-indirectly helps combat problem behaviours like alcoholism
Limitation - revolves around the issue of causality
-not clear if people learn behaviour from models, or if they seek out models who exhibit behaviour or attitudes they already favour
-e.g. Siegel and McCormick (2006) argue that young people who hold deviant values and attitudes are more likely to associate with similarly-inclined peers
-as they are more fun to be with
-therefore the reinforcement of ‘deviant’ behaviour is a two-way process
-not necessarily the result of SLT itself
-furthermore, SLT struggles to explain complex behaviours like gender development
-children are exposed to a whole host of influences when growing up
-these different influences interact in a complex way
-consequently, it is difficult to distinguish behaviours that develop due to SLT from the many other factors that contribute to human behaviour
-cannot establish firm cause and effect relationship
Outline the cognitive approach in terms of:
-the study of internal mental processes
-the role of schema
-the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes
-emergence of cognitive neuroscience
The Study of Internal Mental Processes: (Remember P-PALM)
Problem-solving: how we construct new solutions
Perception: how we turn information from our eyes into a usable form
Attention: how we choose what to think about
Language: how we construct meaningful sentences to communicate with others
Memory: how we store information to use in the future
-cognitive psychologists appreciate that these concepts cannot be directly observed
-use inferences as a means of understanding human experience from observable behaviours
The Role of The Schema
-schema theory is an information-processing model that emphasises how perception and memory are shaped by cognitive frameworks
-schemas are mental frameworks of information
-used to organise past experiences and to interpret and respond to new situations
-example of top-down information-processing
-as they provide us with expectations about what will happen in the world, rather than requiring us to process every single detail, all of the time
-as we age, our schemas become increasingly sophisticated
-adults develop more and more schemas to cover most situations
-allow us to make sense of ambiguous situations by “filling in the gaps” in our knowledge
-enable us to act comfortably even when our information is incomplete
-makes it much easier to deal with complex situations
-however, schemas can lead to errors in information-processing e.g. prejudice and discrimination
The Use of Theoretical Models
-visual representations (e.g. flowcharts) help researchers simplify and study complex processes
-show how information is passed between the different systems that manipulate it
-e.g. the multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968) is a theoretical model of memory
-the WMM (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) is a theoretical model of short-term memory
The Use of Computer Models
-development of computer in the 1960s led to computer models emerging within psychology to explain different mental processes
-e.g. analogy of long-term memory being the hard disk and short-term (working memory) being viewed as the computer’s RAM (Random Access Memory) has been applied to the human brain
-computer models of memory have been particularly useful in the development of artificial intelligence (AI).
The Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience
-attempts to bridge the gap between the cognitive and biological approaches
-resulted from the development of techniques for scanning the living brain while it is actively processing information
-uses non-invasive brain scanning techniques like PET (positron emission tomography) scans and MRIs (magnetic resonance imaging) to understand which parts of the brain are active while specific internal mental processes are being used
-e.g. brain scans have highlighted the distinction between different types of long-term memory (LTM)
-the hippocampus is associated with episodic memory
-the temporal lobe is associated with semantic memory
-the cerebellum and motor cortex are associated with procedural memories
-brain imaging techniques have also been successful in establishing a link to certain mental health disorders
-e.g. the association between obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and the parahippocampal gyrus
Evaluate the cognitive approach
Strength - increased sophistication and availability of cognitive techniques
-e.g. recent advances in neuroimaging technology, such as fMRI, have been useful for theoretical models
-as it provides empirical confirmation of brain activity for specific cognitive functions under controlled conditions
-however, the precise meaning of this activity is still debated
-some claim that these techniques provide the cognitive approach with a strong scientific grounding
-while others insist that neuroimaging evidence is only correlational
-therefore does not constitute true scientific validation of either theories or models
Strength - recognises complexity of human behaviour
-does not assert a reductionist explanation of mental processes
-all cognition undoubtedly rests on a biological foundation since it occurs in the brain and is made possible by its operation
-however, the precise nature of consciousness, memory and perception are not easily reducible to purely biological outcomes
Strength - real-world applications
-e.g. cognitive research into memory and the effects of misleading information has reduced the use of eyewitness testimony in court cases
-led to major reforms in police procedure, like the use of the cognitive interview
-furthermore, better understanding of thinking patterns has helped professionals understand mental illnesses
-hence higher success rate for treatments such as the use of therapies like CBT for depression
-indicates that cognitive research has made concrete contributions to contemporary society
-however, not all human behaviour is linked to cognition
-research in this field has tended to neglect other significant dimensions of behaviour such as emotion and motivation
-may be linked to cognition, but are not the same
Issues and Debates
-cognitive approach pays respect to both the nature and nurture element of this debate
-recognises that behaviour is the result of information processing which occurs in the brain and is of biological origin (nature), while concepts such as schema are modified by experience in the environment (nurture).
-uses both nomothetic and idiographic approaches in psychology
-utilises both experimental methods to generate universal laws to explain behaviour
-furthermore, draws on the findings of individual case studies, such as Phineas Gage and Clive Wearing
Outline the biological approach in terms of:
-The Influence of Genes: Genotype and Phenotype
-The Influence of Biological Structures
-The Influence of Neurochemistry
-Evolution and Behaviour
The Influence of Genes: Genotype and Phenotype
-genes are passed on from one generation to the next
-carry information in the form of DNA, which carry instructions for characteristics, such as eye colour, intelligence, etc
- genotype is genetic makeup, which is fixed from birth
-phenotype is the expression of their genes which leads to the observable characteristics of a person
-phenotype is influenced by both the genetic inheritance and the interaction of this with the environment
-geneticists working within this approach have found evidence that some behavioral or psychological characteristics, such as intelligence or psychological illness, can be inherited in a similar way to physical characteristics, such as eye and hair colour
-much research in this area has used monozygotic (MZ) twins because they share 100% of their DNA (often called identical twins) in comparison to dizygotic (DZ) twins (non-identical) who share 50% of their DNA.
-e.g. recent research has found that MZ twins have an increased concordance rate of developing schizophrenia compared to DZ twins
-e.g. McGuffin et al. (1996) found that if one identical twin has depression, there is a 46% chance that the other twin will also have depression
-suggests that there is a genetic component to illnesses like schizophrenia and depression
-these relationships are important for understanding the genetic component of psychological illnesses
-demonstrates the impact of genes on certain human conditions.
The Influence of Biological Structures:
-structure of organs, such as the brain, central nervous system (CNS), the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the endocrine system determine our behaviour
-nervous system transmits messages through neurons
-many examples of human behaviour are controlled by neuronal action
-e.g. eating (feeling hungry and satiated) and breathing
-furthermore, research has shown that the different lobes of the brain are linked with general functions
-e.g. the occipital lobe is associated with visual perception
-the parietal lobe is linked to the processing of sensory information.
-effect of brain damage is demonstrated by the case study of Phineas Gage who lost his ability to inhibit antisocial behaviour after an explosion sent an iron bar through his head
-destroyed a large portion of his frontal cortex
-demonstrates the influence of a biological structure (frontal cortex on behaviour (inhibition).
The Influence of Neurochemistry
-at the synapse, signals are sent between neurones by chemicals called neurotransmitters
-imbalances in the number of neurotransmitters are associated with atypical behaviour
-e.g. too little serotonin has been associated with depression and too much dopamine has been associated with schizophrenia
-research in this area helps us to understand the role of neurotransmitters
-e.g. recent research by Crockett et al. (2008) suggests that abnormally low levels of serotonin are linked to aggressive behaviour
-indicates that this neurotransmitter is important in regulating behaviour and impulse control
-hormones can also influence behaviour
-released into bloodstream where they travel to target cells which are activated by them specifically
-Carre et al. (2006) found that high levels of testosterone are associated with defensiveness and territoriality in a study investigating the behaviour of ice hockey players
Evolution and Behaviour
-genes are the mechanism through which evolution takes place
-Darwin proposed process of natural selection
-ensures that characteristics which provide an evolutionary advantage, such as survival and enhanced reproductive chances, are passed from one generation to the next
-others which do not, die out.
-Buss’s (1994) survey of heterosexual mate selection
-across all 37 countries studied, he found that men preferred good looks, youth and chastity,
-while women preferred good financial prospects, industriousness and dependability
-results suggest that certain behaviours and traits have evolved in both males and females
-as they promote better prospects for passing on favourable genes
Evaluate the biological approach
Limitation - causation is often strongly implied in explanations that focus on brain structures
-e.g. one explanation of schizophrenia suggests that a lack of activity in the ventral striatum is linked to the development of negative symptoms such as volition
-poses issue for biological explanations as such research tells us only that there is an association between brain structures and behaviour
-cannot tell us that the reduced activity in that area of the brain causes the behaviour, or that the behaviour causes lower activity in that part of the brain.
-therefore, it is critically important to remember that biological explanations are often based on correlational results
Limitation - biological explanations of human behaviour may be considered deterministic
-e.g. one assumption of the biological approach is that some human behaviours are the result of evolution
-they maximise our chances of survival and reproduction
-hence are ‘naturally selected’ and inherited from our ancestors
-such evolutionary claims are used to explain a variety of gender differences in human behaviour including aggression and stress
-implies that humans have little control over their behaviour
-suggests we are predetermined to act in a certain way regardless of experience, free will, or the environment
-this is problematic for those who do not follow ‘typical’ or ‘expected’ behaviours
-overemphasises the role of nature on behaviour
-furthermore, it’s an unfalsifiable explanation
-hence incapable of scientific validation
Strength - often utilises reliable methods of research
-e.g. some research into genetics and neurochemistry requires precise scientific methodology, such as fMRIs, PET scans, drug trials, and EEGs
-these techniques provide psychologists with an accurate measure of internal processes that were previously not accessible
-makes biological evidence less susceptible to misinterpretation or experimenter bias
Strength - many real-world applications.
-drug therapies have been developed for many mental illnesses based on research into neurotransmitters
-antidepressants work to increase serotonin levels in the brain, based on the understanding of how low levels of serotonin contribute to depressive symptoms
-furthermore understanding abnormal neurochemical activity in the brain has not only been helpful for developing treatments but has also provided patients with an explanation that their illness is not their fault
Issues and Debates
Limitation - takes a reductionist approach
-however, justified by biological psychologists that, in order for complex human behaviour to be analysed and best understood, it must be broken down into its component parts
-means that phenomena are explained using genetic, neurochemical or structural explanations
Whilst it is widely accepted that the biological approach takes the nature side of the nature-nurture debate, since behaviour is determined by innate features including genes and neurotransmitters, acknowledgement is paid to the role of the environment with the interaction of the two influencing an individual’s phenotype.
Usefulness of schemas?
-help us predict what will happen in our world based on our experiences
-enable us to process vast amounts of information rapidly
-prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
Disadvantages of schema?
-can distort our interpretation of sensory information
-lead to perceptual errors or inaccurate memories
-can cause biased recall
-negative schema may have negative impact on mental health
Determinism/free will in which approaches?
Learning Approaches:
-environmental determinism
-e.g. conditioning. In behaviourism
-individuals are largely controlled by stimuli and reinforcement patterns in their environment
-SLT, however, allows some role for free will
-acknowledges cognitive processes + ability to choose behaviours to imitate.
Cognitive Approach:
-soft determinism
-recognises that internal mental processes guide behaviour
-suggests that individuals can make choices based on their cognitive processing
-but implies that these choices are influenced by information processing constraints.
Biological Approach:
-biologically deterministic, little room for free will
=behaviour is strongly influenced by genetic, neurochemical, and structural factors.
-argues that biological factors set the parameters within which behaviour occurs
Psychodynamic Approach:
-psychic determinism
-behaviour is driven by unconscious forces, early experiences, and unresolved conflicts
-Freud argued that a lot of behaviour is beyond conscious control
-determined by the Id, Ego, and Superego’s conflicts
Humanistic Psychology:
-emphasises free will
-views individuals as self-determining agents
-capable of making choices and taking responsibility for their actions
-argues that people are not controlled by biology or environment
-motivated by the drive towards self-actualisation
Nature/nurture in which approaches?
Learning Approaches: Emphasises nurture. Behaviourism argues that behaviour is learned from the environment through conditioning. SLT also stresses environmental learning, though it acknowledges that cognitive factors (potentially influenced by biology) play a role.
Cognitive Approach: Interactionist, considering both nature and nurture. Cognitive processes are thought to have a biological basis, but experiences shape how individuals think and process information.
Biological Approach: Strongly on the nature side, it focuses on genetic inheritance, neurochemistry, and brain structure as determinants of behaviour. Evolutionary psychology within this approach also considers the role of natural selection.
Psychodynamic Approach: Interactionist but leans toward nature. Freud believed in innate drives and instincts (like the sexual and aggressive drives). However, he also stressed the importance of early experiences (nurture) in personality development.
Humanistic Psychology: Interactionist, acknowledging both nature and nurture. While individuals have an innate drive towards self-actualisation, their environment (such as conditions of worth and relationships) also influences development.
Reductionism/holism in which approaches?
Learning Approaches:
-environmentally reductionist
-breaks behaviour down into stimulus-response associations or reinforcement patterns
-behaviourists believe complex behaviours can be understood by examining basic learning processes
Cognitive Approach:
-machine reductionism
-compares human mind to a computer
-reduces mental processes to input, processing, and output
-however, cognitive psychology also considers complex mental processes that cannot be fully explained by reductionism alone.
Biological Approach:
-biologically reductionist
-reduces behaviour to biological factors, e.g. genetics, neurochemistry, and brain structure
-critics argue this approach overlooks the complexity of psychological and environmental influences.
Psychodynamic Approach
-interactionist
-combines biological drives with unconscious processes
-but still somewhat reductionist due to its focus on repressed childhood conflicts
-Freud’s model simplifies personality into the Id, Ego, and Superego structure.
Humanistic Psychology:
-holistic
-views individuals as whole beings whose experiences cannot be reduced to components
-values entire person’s subjective experience, personal meaning
-considers connection between thoughts, emotions, and behaviour.
Scientific Methods and Evidence
Learning Approaches: Highly scientific, especially in behaviourism. This approach relies on controlled laboratory experiments (e.g., Pavlov’s and Skinner’s research) to study observable behaviour. SLT uses experimental methods but also incorporates observational research.
Cognitive Approach: Scientific, using rigorous experimental methods to study mental processes. Cognitive psychologists often rely on laboratory studies and computer models to make inferences about cognitive functions, although some argue that studying cognition is less directly observable than behaviour.
Biological Approach: Highly scientific, using methods like brain scans, drug trials, and genetic testing to investigate biological influences on behaviour. The use of advanced technology allows precise measurement and objective evidence.
Psychodynamic Approach: Less scientific, as it relies heavily on case studies (e.g., Little Hans) and subjective interpretations, particularly through methods like dream analysis and free association. Its concepts (e.g., the unconscious mind) are difficult to test empirically, leading to criticism regarding scientific validity.
Humanistic Psychology: Not scientific in the traditional sense; it values qualitative methods such as interviews, aiming to understand subjective experiences rather than measurable behaviour. The humanistic approach is often criticised for lacking objective evidence and falsifiability.
Compare approaches to treatments
Learning Approaches: Behavioural therapies (e.g., systematic desensitisation for phobias) focus on reconditioning maladaptive behaviours. SLT principles are applied in social skills training and behavioural modelling, particularly for social or observational learning deficits.
Cognitive Approach: Led to Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT), which addresses dysfunctional thoughts to modify behaviour. CBT has been highly effective in treating disorders like depression and anxiety by focusing on altering maladaptive thinking patterns.
Biological Approach: Biological treatments focus on physical interventions, such as medication (antidepressants, antipsychotics) or surgery in severe cases. Drug therapies are based on understanding neurochemical imbalances and aim to correct these imbalances.
Psychodynamic Approach: Developed psychoanalysis, which aims to uncover unconscious conflicts and unresolved childhood issues. Techniques such as dream analysis, free association, and transference are used to gain insight into unconscious motivations and work through repressed conflicts.
Humanistic Psychology: Influential in counselling psychology through client-centred therapy, which focuses on empathy, unconditional positive regard, and helping clients achieve congruence. This approach promotes self-acceptance and personal growth, rather than focusing on diagnosis or pathology.
Compare views on development
Learning Approaches: Focuses on learning processes throughout the lifespan but does not have a specific developmental framework. Behaviourists believe learning occurs through continuous interactions with the environment.
Cognitive Approach: Cognitive development is central, with frameworks like Piaget’s theory explaining how thought processes evolve with age. Cognitive psychologists often study changes in information processing across the lifespan.
Biological Approach: Considers development as largely driven by genetic and biological maturation. Emphasis is on how genes and neurobiology influence behaviour over the lifespan, but it does not have a stage-based model of development.
Psychodynamic Approach: Focuses on psychosexual stages, suggesting that personality development occurs through stages influenced by early childhood experiences. Freud’s theory highlights the importance of childhood in shaping adult personality and psychological health.
Humanistic Psychology: Emphasises ongoing development towards self-actualisation. Rogers and Maslow viewed development as a lifelong journey focused on personal growth, without specific stages or age-based milestones.
compare behaviourist with biological approach
AO3 points:
nature vs nurture debate:
Biological: innate drives due to genes neurotransmitters
But e.g. phenotype is due to an interaction with the environment
Caspi et al. (2002) found:
People with MAOA gene mutation who had abusive childhood were more liekly to be aggressive than those with just the mutation
Hence small aspect of nurture involved
Behaviourist: emphasis on nurture
John Locke argued that humans are born with a tabula rasa (blank slate)
Behaviour is largely learnt from environment
Both are highly scientific:
Behaviourist: controlled laboratory experiments
Biological: use of brain scans and drug trials in addition
objective data can be replicated and peer-reviewed
aligns with aims of science
real world applications:
-biological: potential gene therapy for schizophrenia and other disorders due to symptom overlap
SSRIs
-Soomro et al. (2008) used placebos to conduct a review examining effectiveness of SSRIs
-found they were significantly more effective in treating OCD across 17 different trials
-behaviourist: -McGrath et al. (1990) found that 75% of patients with phobias were successfully treated using systematic desensitisation
behaviourist = environmental reductionist = stimulus-response association, behaviour is only learned from environment
biological = biological reductionist = single gene or neurotransmitter that causes behaviour
