Attachment

Question 1

Define attachment

Answer 1

-an emotional bond between two people (usually a primary caregiver and a child)
-two-way, reciprocal relationship that endures over time

Question 2

Define interactional synchrony

Answer 2

-infant mirrors the actions/emotions of the adult
-as they are simultaneously copying their caregiver, the two are synchronised
-sustains communication

Question 3

Outline the study by Meltzoff and Moore (1977)

Answer 3

Aim: To examine interactional synchrony in infants

Method:
-child had dummy in mouth initially to prevent facial responses
-adult model displayed one of three facial expressions or a hand gesture
-dummy was removed from child’s mouth after display
-infant’s facial expressions were filmed

Results:
-clear association between infant’s behaviour and that of the adult
-later research by them in 1983 found the same findings in 3-day old infants

Conclusion:
-interactional synchrony is innate
-reduces strength of claims that imitative behaviour is learned

Question 3

Define reciprocity

Answer 3

-infant responds to the actions of the primary caregiver (the actions of one elicits the response of another)
-caregiver-infant interaction flows back and forth
-increases in frequency after the first 3 months

Question 4

Define sensitive responsiveness

Answer 4

-caregiver pays attention sensitively to the infant’s behaviour
-lays strong foundations for an attachment to form later between the two

Question 5

Evaluate Meltzoff and Moore’s (1977) study into interactional synchrony in infants

Answer 5

Limitation: Individual differences were overlooked
-Isabella et al. (1989) found that the more securely attached the infant, the greater the interactional synchrony
-as Meltzoff and Moore took a nomothetic approach, we are unable to generalise the findings to a wider population on the basis that different families may have different levels of attachment

Limitation: questionable reliability when testing children
-infants constantly move their mouths and arms
-cannot be certain that individuals are actually engaging in interactional synchrony or reciprocity, as some of the behaviour may have occurred by chance

Limitation: possible observer bias
-researchers may unconsciously interpret the infant’s behaviour a certain way to support their findings
-one observer can be used to observe inter-observer reliability
-Koepke et al. (1983) failed to replicate the findings of Meltzoff and Moore, (1977), which makes this study unreliable

Question 6

Outline Schaffer and Emerson (1964)

Answer 6

Aim: To examine the formation of early attachments
Method:
-sample of 60 babies (31 male, 29 female) from working class families in Glasgow aged between 5 - 23 weeks
-babies were visited every month for the first 12 months and then once at 18 months
-interviewed mothers and observed children in relation to separation and stranger anxiety

Results
-50% of children showed separation anxiety towards their mothers at 25-32 weeks, expected of the indiscriminate stage of attachment
-by 40 weeks, 80% of children had a discriminate attachment and 30% had started to form multiple attachments

Conclusion
-provides support for Schaffer’s stages of attachment and proves that attachment develops during the first year of life

Question 7

Evaluate Schaffer and Emerson(1964)

Answer 7

strength - high external validity
-observations were conducted in child’s home
-more likely for them to act naturally
-results are likely to apply to other children with a similar demographic in their homes

Limitation - lacks population validity
-sample was only 60 working class mothers and their babies from Glasgow
-they may form very different attachments compared to other families from other countries
-unable to generalise the results of this study to other backgrounds as their behaviour may not be comparable

Limitation - possibility of social desirability bias
-mothers were interviewed about their children
-some of them may not have reported accurate details about their children, to appear like ‘better’ mothers with secure attachments
-reduces internal validity of findings, as natural behaviour will not have been recorded for each stage of attachment

Question 8

Outline Schaffer and Emerson’s stages of attachment

Answer 8

Asocial:
-from birth to two months
-infant shows similar responses to objects and people, although towards the end of this, they may display a preference for face/eyes

Indiscriminate attachment:
-from two to six months
-infant shows preference for human company over non-human company
-they can distinguish between people, but are comforted indiscriminately
-don’t show separation anxiety

Discriminate attachment
-from seven to twelve months
-infant shows a preference for one caregiver, displaying separation and stranger anxiety
-infant looks to a particular person for security/protection
-shows joy upon reunion and are comforted by their primary caregiver

Multiple attachment:
-one year onwards
-attachment behaviours are now displayed towards multiple people
-sometimes referred to as secondary attachments
-typically form in the first month after primary attachment is formed
-number of multiple attachments that develop a depends on the social circle that infant is exposed to

Question 9

Outline the role of the father

Answer 9

-traditionally limited as fathers would go to work and provide for the family
-some researchers claim that men are not equipped to form attachments
-they point to biological evidence that oestrogen underlies caring behaviour in women
-lack of oestrogen in men = unable to form a close attachment
-other researchers believe that fathers take on the role of a playmate rather than caregiver
-some researchers also say that fathers can demonstrate sensitive responsiveness and respond to the needs of their children, allowing them to form strong emotional ties

Question 10

Evaluate the role of the father

Answer 10

strength - research support for the role of the father as ‘playmate’
-Geiger (1996) found that a father’s play interactions were more exciting than a mother’s
-however, mother’s play interactions were more affectionate, suggesting that the father is more of a playmate than a sensitive parent who can respond to the needs of their child
-also proves that mothers have a nurturing role

Strength - research suggests that fathers are not as equipped as mothers to be a nurturing caregiver
-Hrdy (1999) found that fathers were less able to detect low levels of distress in infants than mothers
-supports the biological explanation that due to a lack of oestrogen, men may not be able to be as nurturing as mothers
-role of the father is biologically determined, and restricted by their genetic makeup
-provides further evidence that fathers struggle more to form secure attachments with infants

Limitation - contradictory research
-Belsky et al. (2009)
-males who reported higher levels of marital intimacy also displayed more secure caregiver-infant attachment
-suggests that males can form secure attachments
-is dependent on the relationship between the father and mother

Limitation - nomothetic approach
-does not take into account individual differences
-e.g. in some cultures, multiple attachments may form before single attachments
-hence, Schaffer’s stages of attachments cannot be generalised to all family dynamics

Question 11

Outline the animal study conducted by Lorenz (1935)

Answer 11

Aim: To examine the phenomenon of imprinting in non-human animals

Method:
-randomly divided greylag goose eggs into two batches: the control group and experimental group
-control group was naturally hatched by mother
-experimental group was hatched in an incubator, with Lorenz ensuring that he was the first moving object seen by the goslings
-Behaviour of either the mother goose or Lorenz was recorded
-Lorenz marked the goslings so that he could distinguish between them
-placed in an upside down box which was then removed and behaviour was recorded again

Results:
-right after birth, naturally hatched eggs followed their mother, whereas incubator-hatched eggs followed Lorenz
-after the box was removed, the incubator-hatched eggs followed Lorenz, showing no biological attachment to the mother
-was noted that this imprint only occurred within a critical period of 4-25 hours after hatching
-relationship persisted over time and proved to be irreversible

Conclusion:
-results suggest that imprinting is a form of attachment exhibited by birds that typically leave the nest early, whereby they imprint onto the first moving object they encounter after hatching

Question 12

Evaluate Lorenz (1935)

Answer 12

Limitation - only used a non-human animal sample
-sample of greylag geese
-cannot generalise results to humans since we are unable to conclude whether they would behave the same way
-furthermore, attachment formation in mammals appears to be very different to that of birds
-mothers in particular show more emotional reactions to their offspring, due to the ability to form attachments within the first few hours after birth
-again suggests that caution must be taken when drawing conclusions based on animal studies

Limitation - contradictory research
-Guiton et al. (1966) found chickens would imprint on yellow washing up gloves and mate with it if that was the first moving object they saw
-Guiton disagreed that the relationship was irreversible
-believed that with experience, the chickens could eventually learn to prefer mating with other chickens instead
-suggests that effects of imprinting may not be as permanent as initially thought

Question 13

Outline Harlow’s (1959) animal study

Answer 13

Aim:
To examine the extent to which contact comfort and food influences attachment behaviour in baby rhesus monkeys

Method:
-Harlow constructed two surrogate mothers: one harsh ‘wire’ monkey and one soft ‘towelling’ mother
-sample of 16 baby rhesus monkeys used across 4 conditions:
!) ‘wire’ mother dispensing milk and ‘towelling mother’ with no milk
2) ‘wire’ mother with no milk and ‘towelling’ mother dispensing milk
3) ‘wire’ mother dispensing milk
4) ‘towelling’ mother dispensing milk
-amount of time baby rhesus monkeys spent with each mother was recorded, alongside how long they spent feeding at each one
-mother preference during periods of stress was tested by monkeys being startled with a loud noise and their responses being recorded
-larger cage used in some conditions to observe the degree of exploration by baby monkeys

Results:
-when given a choice of surrogate mother, baby rhesus monkeys chose the soft ‘towelling’ mother over the ‘wire’ mother, irrespective of whether she dispensed milk
-was observed that they would stretch across to ‘wire’ mother for food while still clinging onto the ‘towelling’ mother for contact comfort
-baby monkeys in the condition with only the ‘wire’ monkey showed signs of distress such as diarrhoea
-when startled by the loud noise, they would cling to the ‘towelling’ mother if she was available to them in that condition
-when given larger cage conditions, greater exploration behaviour was seen by baby monkeys with the ‘towelling’ mother, indicating emotional security

Conclusion:
-baby rhesus monkeys appear to have an innate drive for contact comfort from the parent
-suggests that attachment is formed through emotional need for security rather than food
-contrasts the learning theory explanation
-the contact comfort provided by mother is associated with a higher exploration behaviour and lower stress levels

Question 14

Evaluate Harlow’s (1959) animal study

Answer 14

Strength - large practical value
-provides insight into attachment formation
-has real-world applications
-e.g. Howe (1998) reports that knowledge gained from Harlow’s findings has helped social workers understand risk factors in neglect and abuse cases with human children
-can then serve to prevent it occurring or at least recognise when to intervene
-furthermore, practical applications are used in the care of captive wild monkeys in zoos or breeding programmes
-ensures that they have adequate attachment figures as part of their care

Limitation - breach of ethical guidelines
-Harlow is heavily criticised for the ethical harm caused by his research to the monkeys
-monkeys suffered greatly in terms of emotional separation from birth mother from an early age
-if the species of primates are considered sufficiently human-like to generalise the results beyond the sample, then it’s like that the effects of psychological harm endured will be similar to that of a human baby
-however, Harlow’s approach may be justified by the extent to which his research was a useful insight to psychologists’ understanding of attachment

Limitation - issue of applying animal research to humans
-although Harlow’s sample were baby rhesus monkeys which are non-human, they are far more human-like than the geese that Lorenz studied
-extent to which animal studies, especially primates, can be generalised to human population is still heavily debated amongst psychologists

Question 15

Outline learning theory as an explanation for attachment

Answer 15

-infants learn to become attached to primary caregiver through ether classical conditioning or operant conditioning
-known as ‘cupboard love’
-mainly focuses on food

classical conditioning:
-learning by associating two stimuli together
-before conditioning, food is an unconditioned stimulus which produces an unconditioned response (reflex) in the child relief from hunger / pleasure
-before conditioning, primary caregiver is neutral stimulus, produces no response from infant
-during conditioning, infant associates food with caregiver
-repeated pairings make caregiver a conditioned stimulus, associated with relief from hunger, which elicits a conditioned response (feeding) from mother
-hence attachment is formed

operant conditioning:
-Skinner (1938) found non-human animals learn behaviour through consequences
-when a behaviour is rewarded (through positive/negative reinforcement), it is repeated
-when behaviour is punished, the behaviour stops
-Dollard and Miller (1950) applied these principles to human attachment formation
-infant cries when hungry to be comforted
-caregiver feeds, elicits feeling of pleasure (reward) so baby cries more often to receive food (positive reinforcement)
-reinforcement is reciprocal, as caregiver feels rewarded by baby no longer crying (negative reinforcement), so feeds more often

Primary drive: hunger
Primary reinforcer: food
Secondary drive: attachment
Secondary reinforcer: caregiver

Question 16

Evaluate learning theory as an explanation for attachment

Answer 16

Limitation - undermined by Harlow’s research:
-baby rhesus monkeys spent more time with soft towelling mother with no food than harsh wire monkey with food
-attachment was not formed based on food alone but also contact comfort
-contradicts learning theory and suggests alternative processes were ignored
-furthermore, Schaffer and Emerson found infants formed attachment to mothers, despite being fed by other carers
-provides further contradiction to learning theory

Limitation - refuted by Lorenz’s research:
-baby geese imprinted on first moving object they saw
-innate behaviour to aid survival
-contradicts idea that attachment behaviours are learnt

Limitation - methodological issues with research evidence:
-Pavlov’s research on dogs and Skinner’s on pigeons and rats is criticised for being heavily reliant on animals
-psychologists criticise behavioural explanations for being overly simplistic, as bond between human caregiver and infant is complex
-hence it suffers from environmental reductionism
-difficult to generalise animal findings to humans
-lacks validity

Limitation - alternative theory:
-Bowlby believed infants had an innate readiness to form attachment to caregiver
-protection against harm while they’re young/vulnerable
-evolutionary perspective explains how and why attachment forms, whereas learning theory only suggests how
-hence more comprehensive rather than reducing it to a simple stimulus-response association

Question 17

Outline Bowlby’s theory of attachment as an explanation for attachment

Answer 17

Takes an evolutionary perspective
Born with innate tendency to form attachments to increase survival chances
Remember A Snap Chat Makes Images

Adaptive:
-enhance survival
-infants are kept warm, given food and kept safe

Social releasers:
-babies possess inborn social releasers
-unlock inborn tendencies in adults (i.e. mothers) to want to care for them
-can be physical, e.g. big eyes and button nose to appear cute
-can be behavioural, e.g. crying, cooing and smiling to get attention

Critical period:
-Bowlby said attachments form within a critical period of 3-6 months
-later acknowledged that can be formed up to three years of age
-however, it is a lot harder to form outside this critical period
-if child has not formed an attachment within this critical period, they are damaged for life (emotionally, physically, socially and intellectually)

Monotropy:
-infants form one special attachment with primary caregiver, usually mother
-if mother not available, then it can be with another adult (mother substitute)

Internal Working Model:
-acts as template for expectations of future relationships
-e.g. secure monotropy = healthy relationship later in life

Question 18

Evaluate Bowlby’s theory of attachment as an explanation for attachment

Answer 18

Strength - support for internal working model
-Hazan and Shaver (1987) proposed the Love Quiz
-self-report questionnaire that assessed internal working model
-found positive correlation between early attachment types and later adult relationships
-supports Bowlby’s idea of internal working model
-furthermore, Sroufe et al. (2005) supports this
-Minnesota parent-child study showed outcome of early attachment type being projected onto expectations of future relationships

Strength - support for critical period
-Lorenz found baby geese imprinted within first 12-17 hrs after birth
-appeared to be innate
-suggests animals have a critical period to form attachments in
-however, psychologists call this a ‘sensitive period’ in humans, as they have opportunities to form attachment outside the optimal window

Limitation - alternative explanation
-Kagan (1984) proposed the temperament hypothesis
-child’s genetically inherited personality traits have a role in attachment formation to caregiver
-e.g. more sociable babies are easy to form attachments too, whereas anxious ones are difficult
-argued that Bowlby ignored role of temperament, so reduces validity

Limitation - mixed evidence for importance of monotropy
-Schaffer and Emerson (1964) refute idea of one special attachment
-their stages of attachment includes multiple attachments
-they recognised that some infants do follow monotropy pattern, but not all
-therefore, overrules individual differences

Question 19

What is Ainsworth’s strange situation, aim and method?

Answer 19

by Ainsworth et al. (1971)
Aim: testing strength of caregiver-infant attachment

Method:
-infants aged 9-18 months were placed in an unfamiliar room
-observed behaviour through one-way mirror during 8 different scenarios, lasting 3 mins each:
1) mother and infant enter room. Mother sits on a chair reading magazine. Child is on floor, exploring toys
2) stranger enters and sits and talks briefly with mother
3) stranger approaches infant and attempts to play with them
4) mother leaves room so infant is alone with stranger. Stranger comforts baby if they are upset and offers to play with them
5) mother returns and stranger leaves
6) mother leaves and baby is alone in room
7) stranger re-enters to comfort and play with baby
8) mother returns and stranger leaves

Observations of stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, exploration behaviour and reunion behaviour were video recorded.

Question 20

Results of Ainsworth’s strange situation

Answer 20

66% of infants had a secure attachment:
-explore unfamiliar environment, but return to mother at intervals as a safe-base
-moderate separation anxiety, infant’s play is disrupted by mother’s departure
-moderate stranger anxiety, infant wary of strangers and moves closer to mother if she is also present
-shows upon reunion, seeks proximity and is easily comforted by her presence

22% infants had insecure-avoidant attachment:
-explores environment but doesn’t return to mother as safe-base
-low separation anxiety, not concerned by mother’s departure
-low stranger anxiety, shows little preference between mother and stranger
-often ignores her, does not seek proximity or show joy on reunion (avoids intimacy)

12% infants had insecure-resistant attachment:
-stays close to mother and doesn’t explore environment
-high separation anxiety, extremely violent and distressed when mother leaves
-high stranger anxiety, extremely distressed when stranger tries to comfort
-seeks but rejects attempts of mother’s comfort on reunion, hence not easily comforted

Question 21

Evaluate Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

Answer 21

Strength - high inter-observer reliability
-observations took place under strict and controlled methods (e.g. video records)
-Ainsworth had many observers watching
-94% agreement between observers
-hence makes findings more meaningful
-furthermore, had predetermined behavioural categories so easy to replicate method

Limitation - lacks ecological validity
-unfamiliar setting
-infant may have acted differently if it was set in a familiar environment, e.g. home
-cannot conclude whether behaviours displayed would be the same in a familiar environment
-reduces external validity of findings

Limitation - experiment was undisguised
-parents knew they were being observed
-may have displayed demand characteristics (e.g. by being more affectionate than normal)
-could have altered infant’s behaviour
-reduces internal validity

Limitation - possibly incomplete classification system
-Main and Solomon (1986) conducted subsequent research
-analysed hundreds of strange situation episodes via videotape
-suggested Ainsworth overlooked fourth type: insecure-disorganised (infants showed inconsistent patterns of behaviour)
-further support comes from a meta analysis of US studies by Van Ijzendoorn et al. (1999)
-found 15% of infants were in fact classified as insecure-disorganised

Limitation- nomothetic approach
-not all infants fit into one of the three attachment types
-later research found some children fit into a fourth category, known as insecure-disorganised
-however, this can be overcome by an idiographic approach

Question 22

Outline van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)

Answer 22

Aim: to investigate cross-cultural variations in attachment

Method: conducted meta-analysis of 32 studies from 8 countries that had used Ainsworth’s strange situation. Results included over 1990 infants

Results:
1) secure attachment was the most common type across all cultures examined
2) Israel and Japan (collectivist cultures) showed higher level of insecure-resistant attachment compared to other countries
3) Germany (individualistic culture) showed higher levels of insecure-avoidant attachment compared to other countries

Conclusion: as global trend reflects US norm of secure attachment being most common, supports argument that secure attachment is optimal for healthy development

Question 23

Outline cultural similarities studied by Tronick et al. (1992)

Answer 23

-Efe tribe is located in Zaire, Africa
-live in extended family groups where infants are looked after and breastfed by different women
-however, infants sleep with their own mothers at night
-infants still show preference for primary attachment figure at six months old

Question 24

Evaluate van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)

Answer 24

Limitation - criticised for comparing countries and not cultures
-e.g. Great Britain was compared with Israel
-each country has own cultures within it, each with their own childrearing beliefs
-researchers noted greater variance within countries than between countries
-therefore stands to reason that they did compare subcultures rather than the whole nation

Limitation - biased sample
-27/32 countries were individualistic
-results are biased towards individualistic norms
-cannot generalise results to collectivist cultures
-lacks population validity
-however, large sample of 1990 infants is a strength

Limitation - cultural bias
-used strange situation methodology which is American
-suitable for Western cultures as it reflects their values and norms
-however using it beyond the sample it was designed for is an imposed etic
-hence results may not be valid when used with non-Western samples

Limitation - alternate explanation
-for universal attachment and is not affected by culture
-according to Bowlby, attachment globally is due to innate mechanisms which aid survival
-biologically driven process and is not modified by the culture they grew up in
-however, Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg counter this, suggesting some similarities seen cross-culturally could be due to mass exposure to similar media forums (e.g. television) rather than inborn tendencies

Question 25

Outline Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis and the study associated with it

Answer 25

“If an infant is unable to develop a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with his/her mother (substitute) before the age of 2.5 years then the child would have difficulty forming relationships with other people and be at risk of behavioural/emotional disorders”

-believed these effects would be at their most acute during critical period

Key study: 44 Juvenile Thieves (Bowlby, 1944)
Aim: to see if early separation from primary caregiver (deprivation) was associated with behavioural disorders (e.g. affectionless psychopathy, where individuals had no shame or guilt)

Method:
-sample of 5-16 year old children who had been referred to guidance clinic in London
-examined by Bowlby
-44 of children were criminals (guilty of theft)
-44 were non-criminals (control group)
-Bowlby interviewed children and their families to create a record of early life experiences

Results:
-14 of 44 thieves were identified as affectionless psychopath
-12 of those 14 had experienced early and prolonged deprivation
-only 17% of the ‘other thieves’ had experienced such separations
-only 4% of control group had experienced frequent early separations

Conclusion: suggests a link between early separations and later social maladjustment. The maternal deprivation hypothesis appears to lead to affectionless psychopathy and antisocial behaviour

Question 26

Evaluate Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation

Answer 26

Strength - real-world application
-more awareness in institutions e.g. hospitals where infants are likely to experience prolonged deprivation
-historically, visiting children was restricted
-the Robertson’s (1952) observed Laura (2 y/o girl) hospitalised for 8 days
-struggled to cope with emotional deprivation and demonstrated distress
-key changes have occurred to minimise negative consequences for children
-ensures quality substitute emotional care is provided in absence of parents

Limitation - contradictory research
-Lewis (1944) replicated juvenile thieves study with larger sample
-did not find that early deprivation predicted a greater likelihood of criminal behaviour in youths
-casts doubt on Bowlby’s theory for ignoring other factors
-furthermore, Barrett (1997) found securely attached children are more resistant to effects of maternal deprivation than insecurely attached

Limitation - correlational findings
-clear link between deprivation and affectionless psychopathy
-not clear whether early separation caused issues, or if other factors involved
-cannot establish cause and effect relationship to conclude separation leads to behavioural disorders
-furthermore, Bowlby used retrospective data collection through an interview
-hence parents may have over/underestimated details of early separation
-reduces internal validity

Limitation - criticised for not making distinction clear between deprivation and privation
-Rutter (1982) suggests privation = had no opportunity to form attachment
-he believes privation leads to more damaging consequences than experience of a broken attachment in early years
-Rutter disapproved of Bowlby’s use of the word deprivation, as he believed they were used interchangeably

Question 27

Outline two Romanian Orphan Studies into the effects of institutionalisation

Answer 27

Rutter and Sonuga-Barke (2010)
Aim: to examine the long-term effects of institutionalisation in a longitudinal study, beginning in the early 1990s, called the ERA (English and Romanian Adoptees)
Method:
-experimental group was 165 children who had spent early life in a Romanian orphanage
-111 of them were adopted before the age of two
-remaining 54 were adopted before four years old
-were compared to control group of 52 British children, who were adopted before they were six months old
-social, cognitive and physical development were examined at regular intervals (4,6,11,15)
-interviews were conducted with adoptive parents and teachers
Results:
-Romanian orphans displayed delayed development in social, cognitive, and physical aspects at the point of adoption
-those adopted before six months caught up with British control group in development measures.
-orphans adopted after six months exhibited persistent deficits in social, cognitive, and physical development.
-faced challenges in forming peer relationships
-were often diagnosed with disinhibited attachment disorder
Conclusion:
Institutionalisation can have severe long-term effects on development, especially if children are not provided with adequate emotional caregiving, i.e. adopted by two years old.

The Bucharest Early Intervention Project: Zeenah et al. (2005)
Aim: To investigate attachment type of children who had spent most of their life in institutional care.
Method:
- about 100 children (12-31 months old), 90% from orphanages, compared to a non-institutionalized control group
-researchers used the strange situation methodology to assess infants’ attachment types
-carers in the institution and parents of control group provided information on infants’ behavior, including clinging, attention seeking, and appropriateness towards adults.
-goal was to identify signs of disinhibited attachment disorder in the infants
Results:
- 74% of the control group had a secure attachment to caregivers.
-only 19% experimental group (mostly from institutions) showed secure attachment.
-nearly 65% of infants in the experimental group displayed disinhibited attachment
Conclusion:
Infants who spend their early years in institutional care, with the absence of a primary attachment figure to provide consistent and sensitive emotional caregiving, are less likely to develop a secure attachment and are far more likely, as a result, to experience a disinhibited attachment.

Question 28

Evaluate Romanian Orphan studies

Answer 28

Strength - has practical use in social services
-findings influenced changes in child care and adoption practices
-historically, mothers were encouraged to keep babies longer, to prevent risk of missing critical period to form attachments
-nowadays, infants are adopted early, and Singer et al. (1985) notes secure attachments with adoptive families.
-shows how research on institutionalization improves children’s lives

Strength - research was longitudinal
-spanned many years, allowing assessment of short-term and long-term effects of institutionalization and benefits from adoption
-results are a valid representation of effects of institutional care and the impact of follow-on emotional caregiving

-limitation - role of other factors ignored
-deprivation is just one factor
-Romanian orphans faced little mental stimulation and malnutrition, indicating multiple risk factors influencing development
-difficult to interpret results as the sole effect of deprivation due to various influences, like poverty

-limitation - difficult to generalise due to extreme conditions
-results may not represent typical situations where children experience care and deprivation
-lack of external validity linked to unusual situational variables during harsh political regimes at the time

Question 29

Outline research into the influence of early attachment on childhood relationships

Answer 29

Kerns (1994)
-securely attached infants are more inclined to have good quality peer relationships during childhood
-infants with insecure attachment types are likely to struggle with making/maintaining friendships

Sroufe et al. (2005)
-conducted Minnesota child-parent study
-found infants who were rated high in social competence during childhood were more empathetic, popular and felt less isolated
-infants who are securely attached will have positive expectations that others will be friendly/trustworthy in return
-provides ideal platform for interacting with others during childhood

Question 30

Outline research into the influence of early attachment on adult relationships

Answer 30

Hazan and Shaver (1987)
Aim: questionnaire called the Love Quiz designed to test internal working model to assess if attachment type formed as an infant influences friendships and adult relationships

Method:
-published in local American newspaper with 620 volunteer responses (205 males, 415 females)
-first section assessed most important relationship
-second section ascertained general experiences in love
-third section assessed feelings towards statements

Results:
-56% were securely attached.
-25% had insecure-avoidant attachment.
-19% were insecure-resistant.
-positive correlation between early attachment type and later experiences

Conclusion:
Specific attachment type behaviours are reflected in adult romantic relationships because of an internal working model formed in infancy to guide expectations.

Question 31

Evaluate research into the influence of early attachment on later relationships

Answer 31

Limitation - mixed research in determining continuity of attachment type from childhood to adulthood
-Zimmerman (2000) suggests no link between infant attachment type and quality of relationships with parents during adolescence
-contradicts role of internal working model
-casts doubt on the emphasis on it by Bowlby

Limitation - cannot establish cause and effect relationship
-clear association between quality of later relationship and infant attachment type
-but does not determine causality
-Fraley et al. (2002): correlations were not always strong positive
-correlation coefficients ranged from +.10 to +.50
-hence correlational research in this are is unreliable due to unstable array of results

Limitation - methodological issues with assessing attachment type retrospectively
-relies on self-report from adults about their memories from infancy and childhood
-may be inaccurate due to distortion over time
-reduces internal validity
-furthermore, individuals may not report honestly
-may have displayed demand characteristics and altered answers
-hence suffers from social desirability bias

Limitation - Research into impact of attachment on childhood and adult relationships have very set views on the outcomes for future behaviour
-e.g. infant with insecure attachment is doomed to have unsatisfying relationships in later life
-this approach can be criticised for being overly deterministic
-suggests no room for alternative solutions
-research has shown happy relationships despite troublesome early years
-hence Bowlby may have overestimated role of internal working model