Attachment Flashcards
Define attachment
-an emotional bond between two people (usually a primary caregiver and a child)
-two-way, reciprocal relationship that endures over time
Define interactional synchrony
-infant mirrors the actions/emotions of the adult
-as they are simultaneously copying their caregiver, the two are synchronised
-sustains communication
Outline the study by Meltzoff and Moore (1977)
Aim: To examine interactional synchrony in infants
Method:
-child had dummy in mouth initially to prevent facial responses
-adult model displayed one of three facial expressions or a hand gesture
-dummy was removed from child’s mouth after display
-infant’s facial expressions were filmed
Results:
-clear association between infant’s behaviour and that of the adult
-later research by them in 1983 found the same findings in 3-day old infants
Conclusion:
-interactional synchrony is innate
-reduces strength of claims that imitative behaviour is learned
Define reciprocity
-infant responds to the actions of the primary caregiver (the actions of one elicits the response of another)
-caregiver-infant interaction flows back and forth
-increases in frequency after the first 3 months
Define sensitive responsiveness
-caregiver pays attention sensitively to the infant’s behaviour
-lays strong foundations for an attachment to form later between the two
Evaluate Meltzoff and Moore’s (1977) study into interactional synchrony in infants
Limitation: Individual differences were overlooked
-Isabella et al. (1989) found that the more securely attached the infant, the greater the interactional synchrony
-Meltzoff and Moore took a nomothetic approach
-cannot alise the findings to a wider population
-different families may have different levels of attachment
Limitation: questionable reliability when testing children
-infants constantly move their mouths and arms
-cannot be certain that individuals are actually engaging in interactional synchrony or reciprocity, as some of the behaviour may have occurred by chance
Limitation: possible observer bias
-researchers may unconsciously interpret the infant’s behaviour a certain way to support their findings
-one observer can be used to observe inter-observer reliability
-Koepke et al. (1983) failed to replicate the findings of Meltzoff and Moore, (1977), which makes this study unreliable
Outline Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Aim: To examine the formation of early attachments
Method:
-sample of 60 babies (31 male, 29 female) from working class families in Glasgow aged between 5 - 23 weeks
-babies were visited every month for the first 12 months and then once at 18 months
-interviewed mothers and observed children in relation to separation and stranger anxiety
Results
-50% of children showed separation anxiety towards their mothers at 25-32 weeks, expected of the indiscriminate stage of attachment
-by 40 weeks, 80% of children had a discriminate attachment and 30% had started to form multiple attachments
Conclusion
-provides support for Schaffer’s stages of attachment and proves that attachment develops during the first year of life
Evaluate Schaffer and Emerson(1964)
strength - high external validity
-observations were conducted in child’s home
-more likely for them to act naturally
-results are likely to apply to other children with a similar demographic in their homes
Limitation - lacks population validity
-sample was only 60 working class mothers and their babies from Glasgow
-they may form very different attachments compared to other families from other countries
-unable to generalise the results of this study to other backgrounds as their behaviour may not be comparable
Limitation - possibility of social desirability bias
-mothers were interviewed about their children
-some of them may not have reported accurate details about their children, to appear like ‘better’ mothers with secure attachments
-reduces internal validity of findings, as natural behaviour will not have been recorded for each stage of attachment
Limitation - nomothetic approach
-does not take into account individual differences
-e.g. in some cultures, multiple attachments may form before single attachments
-hence, Schaffer’s stages of attachments cannot be generalised to all family dynamics
Outline Schaffer and Emerson’s stages of attachment
Asocial:
-from birth to two months
-infant shows similar responses to objects and people, although towards the end of this, they may display a preference for face/eyes
Indiscriminate attachment:
-from two to six months
-infant shows preference for human company over non-human company
-they can distinguish between people, but are comforted indiscriminately
-don’t show separation anxiety
Discriminate attachment
-from seven to twelve months
-infant shows a preference for one caregiver, displaying separation and stranger anxiety
-infant looks to a particular person for security/protection
-shows joy upon reunion and are comforted by their primary caregiver
Multiple attachment:
-one year onwards
-attachment behaviours are now displayed towards multiple people
-sometimes referred to as secondary attachments
-typically form in the first month after primary attachment is formed
-number of multiple attachments that develop a depends on the social circle that infant is exposed to
Outline the role of the father
-traditionally limited as fathers would go to work and provide for the family
-some researchers claim that men are not equipped to form attachments
-they point to biological evidence that oestrogen underlies caring behaviour in women
-lack of oestrogen in men = unable to form a close attachment
-other researchers believe that fathers take on the role of a playmate rather than caregiver
-some researchers also say that fathers can demonstrate sensitive responsiveness and respond to the needs of their children, allowing them to form strong emotional ties
Evaluate the role of the father
strength - research support for the role of the father as ‘playmate’
-Geiger (1996) found that a father’s play interactions were more exciting than a mother’s
-however, mother’s play interactions were more affectionate, suggesting that the father is more of a playmate than a sensitive parent who can respond to the needs of their child
-also proves that mothers have a nurturing role
Strength - research suggests that fathers are not as equipped as mothers to be a nurturing caregiver
-Hrdy (1999) found that fathers were less able to detect low levels of distress in infants than mothers
-supports the biological explanation that due to a lack of oestrogen, men may not be able to be as nurturing as mothers
-role of the father is biologically determined, and restricted by their genetic makeup
-provides further evidence that fathers struggle more to form secure attachments with infants
however, biologically deterministic
-other factors can play a role, e.g. free will
Limitation - contradictory research
-Belsky et al. (2009)
-males who reported higher levels of marital intimacy also displayed more secure caregiver-infant attachment
-suggests that males can form secure attachments
-is dependent on the relationship between the father and mother
Limitation - nomothetic approach
-does not take into account individual differences
-e.g. in some cultures, multiple attachments may form before single attachments
-hence, Schaffer’s stages of attachments cannot be generalised to all family dynamics
Outline the animal study conducted by Lorenz (1935)
Aim: To examine the phenomenon of imprinting in non-human animals
Method:
-randomly divided greylag goose eggs into two batches: the control group and experimental group
-control group was naturally hatched by mother
-experimental group was hatched in an incubator, with Lorenz ensuring that he was the first moving object seen by the goslings
-Behaviour of either the mother goose or Lorenz was recorded
-Lorenz marked the goslings so that he could distinguish between them
-placed in an upside down box which was then removed and behaviour was recorded again
Results:
-right after birth, naturally hatched eggs followed their mother, whereas incubator-hatched eggs followed Lorenz
-after the box was removed, the incubator-hatched eggs followed Lorenz, showing no biological attachment to the mother
-was noted that this imprint only occurred within a critical period of 4-25 hours after hatching
-relationship persisted over time and proved to be irreversible
Conclusion:
-results suggest that imprinting is a form of attachment exhibited by birds that typically leave the nest early, whereby they imprint onto the first moving object they encounter after hatching
Evaluate Lorenz (1935)
Limitation - only used a non-human animal sample
-sample of greylag geese
-cannot generalise results to humans since we are unable to conclude whether they would behave the same way
-furthermore, attachment formation in mammals appears to be very different to that of birds
-mothers in particular show more emotional reactions to their offspring, due to the ability to form attachments within the first few hours after birth
-again suggests that caution must be taken when drawing conclusions based on animal studies
Limitation - contradictory research
-Guiton et al. (1966) found chickens would imprint on yellow washing up gloves and mate with it if that was the first moving object they saw
-Guiton disagreed that the relationship was irreversible
-believed that with experience, the chickens could eventually learn to prefer mating with other chickens instead
-suggests that effects of imprinting may not be as permanent as initially thought
Outline Harlow’s (1959) animal study
Aim:
To examine the extent to which contact comfort and food influences attachment behaviour in baby rhesus monkeys
Method:
-Harlow constructed two surrogate mothers: one harsh ‘wire’ monkey and one soft ‘towelling’ mother
-sample of 16 baby rhesus monkeys used across 4 conditions:
!) ‘wire’ mother dispensing milk and ‘towelling mother’ with no milk
2) ‘wire’ mother with no milk and ‘towelling’ mother dispensing milk
3) ‘wire’ mother dispensing milk
4) ‘towelling’ mother dispensing milk
-amount of time baby rhesus monkeys spent with each mother was recorded, alongside how long they spent feeding at each one
-mother preference during periods of stress was tested by monkeys being startled with a loud noise and their responses being recorded
-larger cage used in some conditions to observe the degree of exploration by baby monkeys
Results:
-when given a choice of surrogate mother, baby rhesus monkeys chose the soft ‘towelling’ mother over the ‘wire’ mother, irrespective of whether she dispensed milk
-was observed that they would stretch across to ‘wire’ mother for food while still clinging onto the ‘towelling’ mother for contact comfort
-baby monkeys in the condition with only the ‘wire’ monkey showed signs of distress such as diarrhoea
-when startled by the loud noise, they would cling to the ‘towelling’ mother if she was available to them in that condition
-when given larger cage conditions, greater exploration behaviour was seen by baby monkeys with the ‘towelling’ mother, indicating emotional security
Conclusion:
-baby rhesus monkeys appear to have an innate drive for contact comfort from the parent
-suggests that attachment is formed through emotional need for security rather than food
-contrasts the learning theory explanation
-the contact comfort provided by mother is associated with a higher exploration behaviour and lower stress levels
Evaluate Harlow’s (1959) animal study
Strength - large practical value
-provides insight into attachment formation
-has real-world applications
-e.g. Howe (1998) reports that knowledge gained from Harlow’s findings has helped social workers understand risk factors in neglect and abuse cases with human children
-can then serve to prevent it occurring or at least recognise when to intervene
-furthermore, practical applications are used in the care of captive wild monkeys in zoos or breeding programmes
-ensures that they have adequate attachment figures as part of their care
Limitation - breach of ethical guidelines
-Harlow is heavily criticised for the ethical harm caused by his research to the monkeys
-monkeys suffered greatly in terms of emotional separation from birth mother from an early age
-if the species of primates are considered sufficiently human-like to generalise the results beyond the sample, then it’s like that the effects of psychological harm endured will be similar to that of a human baby
-however, Harlow’s approach may be justified by the extent to which his research was a useful insight to psychologists’ understanding of attachment
Limitation - issue of applying animal research to humans
-although Harlow’s sample were baby rhesus monkeys which are non-human, they are far more human-like than the geese that Lorenz studied
-extent to which animal studies, especially primates, can be generalised to human population is still heavily debated amongst psychologists