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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the two different types of hypothesis and explain them

A
  • null hypothesis: have no difference or correlation
  • alternative hypothesis: show a difference or correlation
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2
Q

what are the two different types of alternative hypothesis and explain them

A

-directional: a relationship/direction is shown (better/worse)
- non-directional: states there is a correlation or direction but doesn’t specify

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3
Q

what is an independent variable

A

something the researcher changes or manipulates to observe effects . It is generally the cause of effect

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4
Q

what is a dependant variable

A

something that is measured to see if there is any change. Generally described as the outcome/effect. The IV is a cause that has an effect on the DV

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5
Q

what does the term operationalisation mean

A

when the researcher clearly defines the variables in terms of how they are being measured. (more specific)

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6
Q

what is an extraneous variable

A

a variable that can effect the dependant variable unless it’s controlled. These are factors that can affect the results of the experiment

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7
Q

what is a cofounding variable

A

a variable that has an effect on the DV. Unlike the extraneous variable, confounding variables do change systematically with the IV.

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8
Q

what are demand characteristics

A
  • cues from the procedure that suggest what the research is about, therefore ppts change behaviour accordingly
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9
Q

what is the investigator effects

A
  • any unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome e.g bias to some ppts, or only picking extraverts
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10
Q

what does the term standardisation mean

A
  • a way of controlling extraneous variables by keeping them the same across both conditions
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11
Q

define the term randomisation

A
  • use of chance wherever possible to reduce the researcher’s influence on the design of the investigation
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12
Q

what is a repeated measures design

A
  • the same ppts take part in each condition
  • they take part in ALL conditions
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13
Q

what is an independent measures design

A
  • ppts are randomly allocated into different conditions and only participate in that condition
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14
Q

what is matched pairs design

A
  • ppts are paired together based on characteristics/variables relevant to the experiment and then each pair is allocated to one of the conditions. (each partner does a different condition)
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15
Q

what are the strengths of a repeated measures design

A
  • differences can’t be due to individual differences as the same ppts take part in both conditions
  • less time is spent recruiting ppts (time efficient)
  • researchers are saving money as less ppts are needed
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16
Q

what are the limitations of a repeated measures design

A
  • ppts may perform worse on 2nd condition due to boredom (order effect)
  • ppts may do better in 2nd condition due to practise effects
  • demand characteristics - guess aim and change behaviour accordingly
    to reduce weaknesses: task may need to be changed between conditions to reduce extraneous variables
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17
Q

what are the strengths of an independent group design

A
  • only participate in 1 condition so there will be no order effect or practise effects
  • tasks won’t need to be changed, allows control between both conditions
    -ppts are less likely to guess the aim, eliminating demand characteristics
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18
Q

what are the limitations of an independent group design

A
  • differences could be due to individual differences
  • more ppts need to be recruited, time and cost ineffective
  • to reduce weakness: random allocation can help reduce ppts variables
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19
Q

what are the strengths of matched pair design

A
  • no order effects or practise effects
  • tasks won’t need to be changed
  • ppts variables are accounted for as ppts are matched
  • ppts are less likely to guess the aim of study, eliminating demand characteristics
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20
Q

what are the limitations of matched pairs design

A
  • matching ppts can be time consuming and expensive, need to identify key variables and measure them
  • can be difficult to know which variables ppts should be matched on
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21
Q

define a laboratory experiment

A

where the researcher directly manipulates/changes the IV and controls all other variables in a highly controlled environment. Ppts are aware they are taking part in this experiment

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22
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a lab experiment

A

strengths:
- highly controlled over confounding variables
-highly replicable, standardised procedure
weaknesses:
- demand characteristics, ppts aware they are taking part in study
- low ecological validity- tasks aren’t reflective of everyday

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23
Q

define a field experiment

A
  • carried out in natural environment- real life setting, researcher directly manipulates IV
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24
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a field experiment

A

strengths:
- less chance of demand characteristics
- higher ecological validity
weaknesses:
-difficult to replicate
-no control over extraneous or confounding variables
- not ethical, lack of consent and deception

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25
Q

define a natural experiment

A
  • researcher doesn’t influence or manipulate study as it is naturally occurring, they just observe and compares data
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26
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a natural experiment

A

strengths:
- more ethical
- high external validity, dealing with real life issues
weaknesses:
-individual differences
- not easy to replicate
- doesn’t control extraneous and confounding variables

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27
Q

define a quasi experiment

A
  • where the IV is naturally occurring as it is pre-existing within individuals but focuses on this difference in individuals to see the effects on the dependant variable. e.g age, gender or disabilities
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28
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a quasi experiment

A

strengths:
- high control, replicable
- individual differences, allows comparison between types of people
weaknesses:
- ppts aren’t randomly allocated as IV is pre-existing. Ppts variables could have caused change in the DV
-demand characteristics

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29
Q

what is a target population

A

entire set of people psychologists are interested in

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30
Q

what is a sample

A

a group of individuals selected from a larger target population

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31
Q

what is generalisability

A

applying findings to a wider population

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32
Q

when do we consider a sample as biased

A

when the sample isn’t representative of the whole population e.g same sex

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33
Q

define random sampling

A

when all members of the population have the same equal chances of being the one that is selected

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34
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of random sampling

A

strengths:
- unbiased, randomly selected, no experimenter effects
weaknesses:
- time consuming

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35
Q

define systematic sampling

A

participants are selected using a set ‘pattern’ (sampling frame)

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36
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a lab experiment

A

strengths:
-highly controlled, extraneous and confounding variables
- highly replicable
weaknesses:
- demand characteristics
-lacks ecological validity, doesn’t reflect every day tasks

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37
Q

define a field experiment

A

researcher directly manipulates the IV in a natural environment

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38
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a field experiment

A

strengths:
-less chance of demand characteristics
-higher external validity
weaknesses:
- difficult to replicate
- no control over extraneous or confounding variables
- ethical issues, lack of consent and deception

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39
Q

define a natural experiment

A
  • the researcher doesn’t directly manipulate the IV as it is naturally occurring.
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40
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a natural experiment

A

strengths:
-more ethical, nothing is being changed or manipulated
- high external validity, dealing with real life issues
weaknesses:
- individual differences, no random allocation
-not easy to replicate
- no control over extraneous and confounding variables

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41
Q

define a quasi experiment

A

-where the IV is naturally occurring as it is pre-existing within individuals but focuses on this difference in individuals to see the effects on the DV. e.g age, gender or disability

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42
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a quasi experiment

A

strengths:
-high control over variables so replication is possible
-individual differences, allows comparisons to be made
weaknesses:
- demand characteristics
- ppts not randomly allocated

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43
Q

what is a target population

A

the entire set of people psychologists are interested in

44
Q

what is a sample

A

a group of individuals selected from a larger target population

45
Q

what is generalisability

A

applying findings to a wider population

46
Q

when do we consider a sample as biased

A

when the sample isn’t representative of the whole population e.g same sex

47
Q

define random sampling

A

all members of population have the same equal chance of being the one that is selected

48
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of random sampling

A

strengths:
-unbiased, randomly selected
weaknesses:
- time consuming

49
Q

define systematic sampling

A

ppts are selected using a set ‘pattern’ (sampling frame)

50
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of systematic sampling

A

strengths:
- avoids researcher bias
weaknesses:
- time consuming

51
Q

define stratified sampling

A

population is divided into subgroups or ‘strata’ based on certain characteristics. Ppts are obtained from each subgroup in equal proportions

equation= group amount/target pop total x desired sample size

52
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of stratified sampling

A

strengths:
- representative method
weaknesses:
-stratification is not perfect, doesn’t reflect all different people

53
Q

define opportunity sampling

A

individuals who are the most available and willing at the time the study is being carried out

54
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of opportunity sampling

A

strengths:
-time and cost effective
weaknesses:
-unrepresentative/biased, drawn from specific area not representative to population
- demand characteristics

55
Q

define volunteer sampling

A

individuals will select themselves to take part in a study

56
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of volunteer sampling

A

strengths:
-informal consent
- quick and easy
weaknesses:
-bias, some people more likely to volunteer than others, keen/motivated individuals gathered

57
Q

what are the 5 ethical issues

A
  1. lack of informed consent
  2. deception
  3. right to withdraw
  4. psychological harm
  5. confidentiality and privacy
58
Q

explain lack of informed consent and a way to solve it

A
  • informed consent involves whether the ppt agrees to take part, but may reveal aims of the study
  • to solve, ask ppts to sign a consent form where appropriate
59
Q

explain deception and a way to deal with it

A
  • deception is deliberately withholding or misleading information so consent is not informed
  • to deal, at end of study ppts should be given a debrief where they are told the true aims of the study and what their data will be used for
60
Q

explain the right to withdraw and a way to deal with it

A
  • refers to ability for ppts to stop participating in study for any reason
  • to deal, once made aware of study, a debriefing process of the right to withdraw the data that has been gathered
61
Q

explain psychological harm and a way to deal with it

A
  • when psychological research causes ppts distress, discomfort and embarrassment
  • to deal, ppts should always have the right to withdraw, and should be reassured their behaviour was normal/typical
    -researcher should provide counselling
62
Q

explain confidentiality and privacy and a way to deal with it

A
  • refers to the right to control information about ourselves and have personal data protected
  • to deal, data gathered should remain anonymous
63
Q

what are the 6 observational techniques

A
  1. naturalistic observations
  2. controlled observations
  3. covert observations
  4. overt observations
  5. participant observation
  6. non-participant observation
64
Q

what are observational techniques

A

a way of seeing or listening to what people do without having to ask them.

65
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of observational techniques

A

strengths:
-capture what people do, give insight on spontaneous behaviour
weakness:
-risk of observer bias

66
Q

what is a naturalistic observation

A

observation takes place where target behaviour would normally occur

67
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a naturalistic observation

A

strengths:
-high external validity, more generalisable to every day life
weakness:
- low control over variables

68
Q

what is a controlled observation

A

observing behaviour in a structured environment e.g lab setting

69
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a controlled observation

A

strengths:
-control over EVs and CVs
- can be replicated, standardised procedure
weakness:
-low external validity
-demand characteristics

70
Q

what is a covert observation

A

when ppts are unaware that their behaviour is being studied

71
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a covert observation

A

strengths:
-demand characteristics reduced
-high internal validity, natural behaviour recorded
weaknesses:
-ethical issues, no informed consent

72
Q

what is an overt observation

A

ppts are aware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded

73
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of an overt observation

A

strengths:
-ethically acceptable, consent is given
weaknesses:
-demand characteristics, reduces validity

74
Q

what is a participant observation

A

the researcher who is observing joins and becomes part of the group that is being observed

75
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a participant observation

A

strengths:
-more insightful
weaknesses:
-may lose objectivity, may identify too strongly with participants

76
Q

what is a non participant observation

A

the researcher observes from a distance so is not part of the group being observed

77
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a non participant observation

A

strengths:
-more objective, less likely to identify with ppts
weakness:
-loss of insight
-open to observer bias

78
Q

what are the two observational designs

A
  1. structured
  2. unstructured
79
Q

what is a structured design

A

researchers quantify their observation using a pre-determined list of behaviours (behavioural categories) and sampling methods

80
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a structured design

A

strengths:
-easier, more systematic
-less risk of observer bias
-quantitative data is easier to analyse
weaknesses:
- not much depth of detail
- difficult to achieve high inter observer reliability

81
Q

what is an unstructured design

A

consists of continuous recording where the researcher records everything they see

82
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of an unstructured design

A

strengths:
-more richness and depth of detail
weaknesses:
-qualitive data is more difficult to analyse
- greater risk of observer bias

83
Q

what are behavioural categories

A

-the target behaviour to be observed should be broken up into a set of observable categories. Requires operationalisation.
-this ensures the target behaviour is clearly defined, the observation is more objective and increases the simplicity

84
Q

what are the two types of sampling methods

A
  1. event sampling
  2. time sampling
85
Q

what is event sampling

A

involves recording the number of times particular behaviour within the behavioural categories occurs whilst observing

86
Q

what is time sampling

A

observations are made at regular intervals e.g once every 15 secs

87
Q

what is inter observer reliability

A

when more than one observer agrees

88
Q

what is a questionnaire

A

made up of a pre-set list of written questions or items which a participant responds

89
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires

A

strengths:
- can be distributed to lots of people
- straightforward to analyse
weaknesses:
- responses may not always be truthful
- response bias

90
Q

what is an interview

A

face-to-face or online interaction between an interviewer and interviewee

91
Q

what are the two types of interviews and explain them

A
  1. structured interview- made up of a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
  2. unstructured interview- informal interviews, free-flowing and not set questions
92
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a structured interview

A

strengths:
-easy to replicate
weaknesses:
- interviews cannot elaborate

93
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of an unstructured interview

A

strengths:
- greater flexibility
weakness:
- increased risk of interviewer bias

94
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of closed questions

A

strengths:
- easier to analyse
- patterns can be drawn
weaknesses:
- responses are restricted

95
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of open questions

A

strengths:
- responses aren’t restricted
weaknesses:
-difficult to analyse and time consuming

96
Q

what is a positive correlation

A

as one variable increases the other variable increases

97
Q

what is a negative correlation

A

as one variable increases the other variable decreases

98
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of correlations

A

strengths:
- can highlight relationships
- can show direction and strength of relationships
weaknesses:
- doesn’t show cause and effect
- intervening variables, leading to false conclusions

99
Q

what is the difference between qualitative and quantitative data

A

qualitative- expressed in words and in depth
quantitative- numerical data

100
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative data

A

strengths:
- richness in detail
weaknesses:
- difficult to analyse and time consuming
-subjective

101
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data

A

strengths:
- easier to analyse
- objective
weakness:
- narrower in meaning
- lacks construct validity

102
Q

A01
Explain what is meant by reliability

A
  • a measure of ‘consistency’
  • if a result can be repeated then its described as reliable
  • reliability of methods : replicability
  • reliability of findings: consistency
103
Q

A01
What are the ways of assessing reliability

A
  • giving ppts ‘same test’ or ‘questionnaire’ to same person/group of people on different occasions
  • if test is reliable then results obtained should be the same or very similar
  • there must be sufficient time between test and retest so ppts can’t just recall their answers
  • if correlation is 0.8 or above then we can assume good reliability of the questionnaire/tool
104
Q

A01
How do you improve reliability of questionnaires

A
  • use test retest method
  • compare both sets of data, if correlation is above 0.8 then indicates high reliability
  • questionnaire that has low test retest reliability requires some questions to be removed or re written
  • e.g if some questions are ambiguous they may be interpreted differently
  • potentially replace some ‘open ended’ qs
105
Q

A01
How can we ensure an observation maintains reliability

A
  • conduct observations in teams of at least two, researcher can check for inter-observer reliability
  • conduct small scale ‘pilot study’ and administer appropriate ‘behavioural categories’
  • behavioural categories: researcher will break down target behaviour into smaller sub categories
  • should be clear, not overlapping, not ambiguous or vague or require interpretation
  • researcher can record data using a tally chart using agreed behavioural categories
106
Q

A01
Explain what is meant by validity

A
  • whether a psychological test produces a result that is ‘legitimate’ and whether the researcher has actually measured what they intended to measure
  • also refers to the extent which findings can be generalised beyond the research setting (external validity)

Examples:
- Milgram’s shock experiment lacks external validity as some ppts guessed the shocks weren’t real (Blass and Schmitz found 1/3 of ppts guessed the shocks weren’t real)
- artificial/ controlled nature of environment

  • Asch’s line experiment lacks ecological validity due to artificial environment
107
Q

A01
Explain the steps of a content analysis

A

1) data needs to be in a transcript/ written data
2)

Psychology (9 decks)

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