Memory Flashcards
STM:
- …… capacity store
-coding is mainly……
- capacity is between …. and …. items
- duration is about ….seconds
-limited capacity store
-coding is mainly acoustic
-between 5 and 9 items (7+-2)
-duration is 18 seconds
LTM:
– the permanent memory store
- coding is mainly ….
- the capacity is …..
- the duration can be up to a ….
- coding is mainly semantic
- the capacity is unlimited
- duration can be up to a lifetime
We code ….. in the LTM, which refers to the meaning of the word
semantically
What did Bharick test?
the duration of the LTM
what is the definition of coding
The format in which information is written/stored in either STM or LTM
How do we code in the STM
We code acoustically, which refers to the sound of the word
How do we code in the LTM
we code semantically, which refers to the meaning of the word
What is the definition for capacity
refers to how much information can be held or stored in either STM and LTM
What is Millers magic number for capacity
7+-2
What did Baddeley test in his recall experiment
coding of the STM and LTM
What is one way you can increase STM capacity
Chunking. By grouping information into smaller units we are more likely to remember more information
define duration
how long we can retain information in our STM and LTM
what was the aim of the Peterson and Peterson experiment
to test the duration of the short term memory
what was the aim of the digit span test
to test the STM capacity
what is a weakness of experiments that use digits to test memory
they are not representative of how our memory works on a daily basis and what we tend to remember, therefore limited application.
what is a weakness of Baddeley’s recall experiment for memory
-ppts were given random word lists that had no personal meaning- artificial stimulus
-isn’t representative as we tend to remember words with meaning
- can’t generalise findings to memory that doesn’t involve random word lists with no meaning
- therefore lacked external validity
who proposed the multi store model and what does the model predict
-Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
- model predicts that if you damage one of the memory stores, this does mot mean that the other memory stores have been damaged, however if you damage one of the stores in the chain of processing info then you will not be able to transfer from that store to the next (e.g of you damage the stm you wont be able to transfer memories to the ltm)
what is the multi store model made up of
sensory register, STM, LTM
What information enters the sensory register
-information from the environment enters via our senses e.g eyes, ears, nose and touch.
what is the capacity, duration and coding for the sensory register?
capacity: very high, constantly bombarded with info but most receives no attention
duration: less than a millisecond
coding: modality specific
what is maintenance rehearsal?
occurs when we repeat material to ourselves over and over again in order to keep information in our STM. If we rehearse long enough (elaborative rehearsal) information eventually passes to our LTM.
define displacement
when more information goes into the STM it overrides previous information
what are strengths of the MSM
1) research support for duration: Peterson + Peterson, gave ppts trigrams and were given a 3 digit number to count back from to avoid mentally rehearsing
- after 3 secs, recall was 90% accurate, only 2% after 18 secs
- supports claim by Atkinson and Shiffrin that STM has a short duration unless information is rehearsed
2) Glanzer and Cunitz found words at the start and end of words lists were more easily recalled (primary recency effect) suggests first words in LTM and last in STM, support that STM and LTM are separate
Describe the ‘serial position effect’ proposed by Glanzer and Cumitz (1966)
-when asking people to remember a list of words which is greater than the capacity of STM, they have a tendency to remember words from the beginning and end of the list.
define the primary effect from Glanzer and Cumitz research
the tendency for people to remember the first 5 or so words from the beginning of a word list
define the recency effect from Glanzer and Cumitz research
the tendency for people to remember the last 5 or so words from the end of a word list
how does the primary, recency effect and displacement support the MSM?
-primary effect: the first words are the best rehearsed and transferred to LTM.
-recency effect: the last words presented so are fresh and in our STM at the start of recall
-displacement: the newer words override previous so supports the importance of rehearsal.
How does Clive Wearing’s case study support the MSM
- rehearsal mechanism to transfer info from STM and LTM doesn’t work for him, suggesting the STM and LTM are 2 seperate stores and there’s a process that transfers info from one store to another.
What happened to Clive Wearing?
He developed a virus that attacked his brain and left deficits to his memory.
What is a weakness of using Clive Wearing to support the MSM?
- it is a case study therefore we can’t generalise the findings to a wider population because other people’s brains may work differently
-there is evidence to suggest there is more than one type of LTM as he can still play the piano but can’t remember memories of his own lifetime.
Evaluate the strengths of a case study
- in depth information relating to one person
-high validity- meaningful and useful for researchers aim
-gives a unique insight into a specific theory
-qualitative data drawn- written and detailed
Evaluate the weaknesses of a case study
-researcher bias-researcher writes the report, could be close with the patient and form some sort of relationship
-unreliable/unscientific- can’t replicate findings
- can’t generalise findings to a wide population as everyone’s brains work differently and this is only tested from one individual
Who proposed the idea that there are 3 different LTM stores?
Mr Tulving
what are the 3 different types of LTM stores and what does each represent?
-episodic: our ability to recall events from our lives(birthdays) (‘knowing when’) - these memories are time stamped
-semantic: our knowledge of the world, facts about everything (‘knowing that’)- not time stamped
-procedural: our memory for actions or skills (‘knowing how’) -almost automatic - not usually time stamped
What is the process called when we want to recall information from the LTM to the STM according to the MSM
This process is called retrieval
How does information go from your sensory register to your STM according to the MSM
by paying attention to the information
what are the strengths of brain scans
- they are objective (results can’t be faked and isn’t down to researchers interpretation)
- highly scientific and can tell us important findings about brain regions and their involvement in cognitive tasks (brain processes)
- accept research findings with less caution
-no subjective bias (researcher opinion)
what is explicit/declarative memory?
- recall of previous learned info that requires a conscious effort to receive
what is implicit/non declarative memory
- recall of previously learned info that requires no conscious effort to receive.
Patient HM evaluation - strengths
- episodic memory was severely impaired however semantic and procedural memories intact.
-supports concept of different types of LTM, shows LTM can be damaged without affecting STM - hippocampus is important for episodic memory and procedural isn’t effected by it’s removal
Weakness of HM evaluation
- in depth case study on one person so can’t generalise findings to wider population as not all brains are the same.
- due to uniqueness of experience can’t apply it to other individuals
Who proposed the working memory model (WMM)
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Why did Baddeley and Hitch propose the WMM
- sees stm as an active store where msm is seen as a passive and unitary store, and enables us to manipulate info, also suggests there are multiple stm stores
- the MSM was criticised for being too simplistic
- the WMM is a comprehensive explanation of how STM is organised and how it functions and links to the LTM
what are the 4 stores in the WMM
- central executive
- visuospatial sketch pad
- episodic buffer
- phonological loop
what are the key functions of the central executive
-decides which slave system will be used to deal with attended info
-has very limited capacity so can’t store any info itself
-acts as a ‘boss’
what are the 2 stores the phonological loop made from and what are their functions
phonological store- stores the words you hear
- inner voice - articulatory store- allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds/words in a loop to keep them in working memory while needed) inner ear
- phonological loop- duration is 2 secs (very limited) and deals with auditory info (coding is acoustic)
what are the key functions of the visuo-spatial sketch pad?
-stores visual/spatial info e.g if asked to recall how many windows are on your house
- limited capacity
-visual- what things look like (colour/shape)
-spatial- relationships between things(distance in relation to other objects)
What are the 2 stores the visuo-spatial sketchpad is made of and what does each do
visuo-cache: stores info about forms and colour
inner-scribe: stores the arrangement of objects in the visual field (relationships in 3D space)
what are the key functions of the episodic buffer?
-acts as a temporary store that intergrates visual, spatial and verbal info from other slave systems
-records events as they happen
-capacity of around 4 chunks - limited
-links STM to LTM and wider cognitive functions
what are strengths of the WMM -research support
empirical evidence:
- Baddeley dual task performance
- ppts struggled performing 2 visual tasks at the same time but performed better in 1 visual and 1 verbal task (describing the letter F and tracking a light)
- as tasks were using the same processing
- shows there must be separate slave systems, strengthens validity of WMM
Patient KF
- KF had selective impairment to verbal STM from brain injury, however visual functioning of STM was not affected. Suggests the phonological loop and visual spatial sketchpad are separate processes
- neuroimaging evidence: different components of the WMM are situated in different regions of the brain
- phonological loop is located in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere, whereas the visuospatial sketchpad is in the right hemisphere
- shows there are separate stores in STM
what are weaknesses of the WMM
lack of clarity:
- limited understanding of the central executive, too vague an no full explanation of its function
- patient EVR did well on reasoning tasks but poor on decision making tasks, suggesting partial damage to the CE as it may consist of separate subcomponents
Lab based
- high controlled with strong internal validity, issues with external validity, memory tasks lack mundane realise, may not be generalised to how we use memory in day to day life
Inferences
- impossible to directly observe process of memory described in models, means inferences must be made which are assumptions about cognitive processes, these could be incorrect
define interference
- an explanation of forgetting (LTM) because one memory blocks another causing one or both memories to be distorted.
- usually occurs when memories are similar (response competition) or learned in quick succession
what are the two types of interference and what are their functions
proactive: past info affects ability to recall new info (e.g forgetting new phone pin and keep putting in old)
retroactive: new info affects ability to remember old info (forget old gfs name and only remember current gf)
what researchers investigated the effects of similarity (interference)
McGeoch and McDonald
What experiment did McGeoch and McDonald propose when investigating the effects on similarity for interference
-they studied retroactive interference
-lab based study- extraneous variables are controlled- internal validity increased
-ppts learned a list of 10 words and were spilt into 4 groups (conditions) and had to learn another list of words
1) synonyms
2) antonyms
3) unrelated words
5) numbers
what were the findings of McGeoch and McDonald’s experiment investigating the effects on similarity for interference
- ppts recall of original 10 word list was impaired/affected by the new learning
-ppts whos 2 word list was synonyms had the poorest recall - this supports the fact that interference is strongest when materials are similar
what are strengths of interference as an explanation for forgetting - research support
1) McDonald and McGeoch: similarities of information, if list B was synonyms recall was poor at 12%, if list B was nonsense syllables recall was better at 26%
- supports main assumptions of interference theory (retroactive) new info disrupted previously learned info
however: artificial stimuli, lacks mundane realism, can’t generalise to every day tasks
2) Baddeley + Hitch: asked rugby players to recall names of teams they played
- those who played all matches had poorer recall.
- interference was linked to number of games played, can effect memory recall in everyday situations
What does the retrieval failure theory suggest
-a form of forgetting, occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory.
-info is available but cannot be recalled due to the absence of appropriate cues
what is a cue
- anything that serves as a reminder and triggers info from being retrieved
what is the encoding specificity principle?
- Tulving’s research summarised this principle
- if a cue is going to be helpful it has to be both 1) present at encoding 2) present at retrieval
-if they are different there will be some form of forgetting
define encoding and retrieval
encoding- when we learn the material
retrieval- when we recall the information
what are the 2 types of cues and what do they mean
- context dependant: external cues related to the environment
- state dependant: internal cues related to a mental state
what are weaknesses of interference as an explanation of forgetting
1) McDonald and McGeoh used a list of unrelated words and ppts are motivated by experimental context rather than real-life incenties to remember.
- lab study- may not represent real-life memory processes
-lacks mundane realism and external validity
-therefore hard to generalise findings beyond lab settings
2) interference only explains forgetting when two sets of information are similar and when learnt close together in time (time sensitivity), meaning the theory struggles to explain many day-to-day examples of forgetting
what was the study proposed by Baddeley and Hitch on real-world applications of interference theory
-used a group of rugby players and asked them to recall names of teams they played throughout the season. Some played all matches and some didn’t due to injuries
-found that those who played all matches had poorer recall of the team names
- this shows interference can affect memory in everyday situations
- in this case interference was linked to the number of games played
Explain the experiment devised by Overton (1972) on the impact of state-dependant cues on memory recall
-lab experiment
- ppts were given 4 conditions
1) learning words drunk and recalling drunk
2) learning words drunk and recalling sober
3) learning words sober and recalling drunk
4) learning words sober and recalling sober
- ppts who’s state and contexts were the same (encoding and retrieval) had higher recall accuracy
- therefore being in the same cognitive state can enhance memory performance
Explain the experiment devised by Godden and Baddeley on the impact of context-dependant cues on memory recall
-used 18 divers, independent group design, lab study
-ppts were given 4 conditions
1) learnt on land, recalled on land
2) learnt on land, recalled underwater
3) learnt underwater, recalled underwater
4) learnt underwater, recalled on land
- in non matching conditions accurate recall was 40% lower
- therefore when external cues are different at learning and recall then retrieval failure is likely to occur
What is the weakness of these context dependant retrieval failure findings from studies
-lack ecological validity due to artificial environments of learning and recall
-Baddeley argued that contexts have to be very different before an effects is seen. It is difficult to find conditions in real life which are as extreme such as water and land.
- therefore the findings are limited, this weakens are acceptance of the theory
what is an eye witness testimony
refers to an account given by people of an event they may have witnessed
what is misleading information
- information suggesting a biased answer
- leading qs
- post event discussion
what is a leading question
a question that, either by its form or content suggests a desired answer or leads to a desired answer
- seen in Loftus and Palmer’s study
explain post-event discussion
-a conversation between co-witnesses or an interviewer and an eye-witness after a crime has taken place which may contaminate a witness’ memory from the event
- eyewitness testimonies can become altered and distorted
- could lead to groupthink (group will conform to majority rather than stating their own opinions)
what are weaknesses of research into misleading info and post event discussion as a factor affecting EWT
-studies may lack external validity due to controlled environment- Foster found if ppts thought they were watching a real life crime and their responses would count in trial, their identification was more accurate, so in real life other factors such as stress and concentration may override lab effects
- individual differences- individuals across all age groups had greater accuracy when identifying people from own age group
what is a strength of research into misleading info of eye witness testimony
- real world application- has important uses in the criminal justice system
- development of cognitive interview, designed to reduce the influence of schemas on the accuracy of recall, ensure innocent ppl aren’t convicted of crimes due to poor recall of events from a witness
How did Loftus and Palmer study the effects of leading qs on EWT using a lab study
- ppts watched a clip of a car accident and gave qs about it
-the leading q was : ‘ how fast were the cars going when they ….. each other.’ - they used 5 different verbs to see how their answers would change
1) hit- speed given : 34mph
2) contacted- 31.8 mph
3) bumped- 38.1 mph
4) collided - 39.3 mph
5) smashed- 40.5 mph
A03
What is research support for post event discussion (conformity effect)
- Gabbert et al, effects of post-event discussion
- independent group design
-ppts watched a different video of the same crime and were told to discuss what they had seen
-71% of ppts included details in their recall from their partners video - in control group where ppts didn’t discuss after the corresponding figure was 0%.
- therefore witnesses often go along with each other, weather to win social approval or they think the other witnesses are right and they are wrong- conformity effect.
Describe the experiment proposed by LaRooy investigating the impact of repeat interviewing on eyewitness accuracy
- controlled experiment design
- ppts watched a staged crime and were divided into 2 groups with different conditions 1) interviewed once 2) multiple interviews at different times
- repeated interviewing had the potential to introduce inaccuracies and inconsistencies in EWT, impacting recall
-therefore repeat interview can effect the accuracy of EWT as comments made by the interviewer can become incorporated in the recollection of data
define misleading information
- information that may not be accurate due to leading questions or post-event discussion
what are factors of physiological arousal that occur
- increased heart rate
- rapid breathing
- dizziness
- lack of concentration
what is the positive effect of anxiety on EWT
- witnessing a crime creates anxiety
- anxiety triggers flight or fight response
- our alertness increases and improves our memory as we become more aware of cues in the situation
- therefore recall is better
what is the negative effect of anxiety on EWT
- witnessing a crime creates anxiety
- creates physiological arousal - ‘autonomic nervous system’
- prevents us from paying attention to important cues due to the weapon focus effect where eyewitness may fixate on the weapon due to fear or fight or flight response
- therefore recall is worse
Describe how Yuille and Cutshall investigated the positive effects of anxiety on EWT accuracy
- interviewed witnesses of a real-life shooting after 4-5 months, compared interviews from police interviews
- accuracy was measured by number of matching details
- open ended qs were asked to minimise leading qs
- they were also asked about their stress levels during crime (asked to rate levels)
- during high anxiety event memory was high with little difference from original interview, those who reported high stress has 88% accuracy, low stress had 75% accuracy
- even included details such as number of shots fired
- therefore showing how anxiety had a positive effect on recall accuracy
what are weaknesses of Yuille and Cutshalls research
- lacks internal validity, proximity may have influences recall and potentially enhance the accuracy of EWT, introduces a confounding variable, challenging to establish cause and effect
- unethical, ppts may suffer psychological harm. The process of asking about an emotional event could be distressing and retraumatising
Describe how Johnson and Scott investigated the negative effects of anxiety on EWT accuracy
- independent group design
- 1) man ran into the same room as ppts and carried a greasy pen (low anxiety)
2) man ran into the room carrying a bloody knife (high anxiety) - thy were asked to identify the man from a set of 50 photos
- in ‘high anxiety’ condition ppts were less accurate at identifying the man (33% accuracy)
- in ‘low anxiety’ condition ppts were more accurate when identifying man (49% accuracy)
- therefore anxiety created a negative impact on eyewitness accuracy, focused attention on the weapon and away from other details of event
what is the weapon effect/focus of memory
- weapons are a cause of anxiety, witnesses are distracted, focusing attention on the weapon rather than the criminal
what does the inverted U diagram suggest about performance and anxiety and what is it called
- Yerkes-Dodson Law proposed there is a relationship between arousal and performance
- when a crime is witnessed a person becomes emotionally (anxiety) and physiologically (adrenaline) aroused
- low levels of arousal (anxiety) are associated with low levels of performance (recall and accuracy of EWT)
- as arousal increased, performance increases up to an optimum
- after this as arousal continues, performance begins to decrease
what is a criticism of weapon focus (Johnson and Scott)
- Pickel study
- suggests impaired recall may be due to surprise rather than anxiety
- tested this with 4 conditions : raw chicken, handgun, scissors and a wallet
- found EWT is less accurate when unusual objects are involved (such as chickens) as well as weapons
- suggests the weapon focus effect is due to surprise rather than anxiety
How can we improve the accuracy of EWT
- the cognitive interview technique (Fisher + Gieselman)
- questioning technique used by the police to enhance retrieval of information from the witness memory
what are the 4 stages of cognitive interview
1) report everything - can help trigger cues and recollection of memories
2) reinstate the context- state and context cues trigger memory
3) reverse the order- prevents schemas from influencing recall
4) change perspective- prevents pre-existing schemas from influencing recall by having a holistic view
what are the strengths of the cognitive interview
-1) effectiveness, Kohnken did a meta-analysis and found the CI increased accurate information by 81% however increased incorrect info by 61% so may be of limited practical use due to increased errors
2) supporting research- Fisher field experiment, trained some policemen to use CI and some not, 7 using CI and 9 using standard interview. Found the CI gave 47% more accurate information
what are weaknesses of the cognitive interview
- cognitive interview is time consuming, also requires special training which many forces aren’t able to provide and diverts them from their normal work
- may not be as applicable as we thought as limited financial resources
HOWEVER, could do a cost benefit analysis, considering overall effect on justice system, reducing crime
Explain Bharicks test on the duration of LTM
- got ppts to remember names of ex students they went school with
- used recall and recognition
- after 15 years, recall was 60% accurate, after 48 years recall was 30%
- after 15 years, recognition was 90% accurate, after 48 years recognition was 80%
What is a strength of Bharicks study on duration of LTM
1) ecological validity, ppts were asked to remember meaningful things, in other studies the stimulus is meaningless so less effort may be put into remembering it
What is a weakness of Bharicks study on duration of LTM
- no control over extraneous variables, individuals may have been closer with other students, so the way in which they remember them is different accordingly
Explain Baddeleys experiment on coding STM and LTM
- split groups into 4
- acoustically similar/dissimilar, semantically similar/dissimilar words
- for STM (acoustic code) recall of acoustically similar was hardest as it was easy to get them muddled up
- for LTM (semantic code) recall of semantically similar was hardest as easy to get order wrong
What is the coding, duration and capacity for STM
Coding- acoustic
Duration- 18-30 secs
Capacity- 7+-4
What is the capacity, duration and coding of LTM
Capacity- unlimited
Duration- very long time
Coding- semantic
How does information pass between our stores according to the multi-store model
- for info to pass from sensory register to STM we must pay attention
- to pass info from STM to LTM we have to repeat the info (rehearsal)
What is a strength of Tulving’s separate stores for LTM
- neuroimaging, in episodic memories, hippocampus is active,
- recalling facts and knowledge activates the temporal lobe,
- performing skills and actions activates the cerebellum and motor cortex
What is a weakness of Tulvings separate stores for LTM
- Squire and Zola found ppts with damage to temporal lobe had damage to semantic and episodic memory
- therefore semantic and episodic memory may not be different types of memory, may be stored in same memory store
- memory may start off episodic then semantic
What are weaknesses of interference as an explanation of forgetting
1) may only explain temporary loss of information, so not a true explanation for forgetting such as permanent loss of information
2) interference only explains forgetting when two sets of info are similar and often when learnt close together in time (time sensitivity). Means the theory struggles to explain many day to day examples of forgetting such as forgetting someone’s bday
What are schemas
- packages of info about people and objects in world around us
- may use as mental shortcuts
- memories change to fit with the individual’s pre-existing bias
Explain how Loftus and Palmer study the duration of misleading information in the form of leading qs
- in a follow up study, they asked ppts if they saw broken glass
- using either ‘hit’ or ‘smashed’
- it was found ppts were twice as likely in smashed condition to respond yes than the hit condition
- suggests effects of misleading information in the form of leading qs can be long lasting and actually change memories via substitution
What are the factors affecting accuracy of EWT
- misleading information
- leading qs
- post event discussion
- anxiety
A03
What are weaknesses of the multi store model of memory
1) isn’t supported by findings from case studies, e.g patient KF had damage to his stm store but his long term memories were still in tact
2) oversimplified, says there’s only one type of LTM, cases of HM and Clive Wearing show how one type of LTM may be impaired but others types will be unaffected, e.g CW was able to play the piano and read music (procedural and semantic) but was unable to remember his wife visiting 5 mins previously (episodic), shows there are diff LTM stores
3) oversimplifies STM, patient KF had impaired verbal tasks but in tact visual ones
4) doesn’t explain how information is transferred without using rehearsal, giving too much emphasis on the role of rehearsal between stm and ltm
What happened to patient KF
- he got in a motorcycle accident and had brain damage
- he had impaired stm memory but his LTM were still intact
A03
What are strengths of research on context dependant forgetting
1) has practical applications, students can develop effective revision strategies and theories like ‘context cues’ improve recall have been used in the development of an effective police technique called the cognitive interview
A01
What are the factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
1) leading questions
2) post event discussion (memory conformity)
3) anxiety
Explain Peterson + Peterson’s experiment on duration of STM
- got 24 undergraduate ppts to take part in 8 trials where they were each given a trigram of random consonants to remember and counting down from a random 3 digit number (prevent rehearsal)
- asked to stop counting a recall trigram in intervals of 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds
- found 80% accuracy for recall after 3 secs
- 10% accuracy after 18 secs
- suggests STM is limited to roughly 18 secs
Exam q: evaluate research inro duration in memory
- outline Peterson + Peterson’s experiment
- strength: carried out research in lab conditions, good control over extraneous variables, and standardised procedures were used (e.g fixed time intervals) meaning results are reliable and can be replicated as variables were closely controlled in a lab environment
- weakness: recall of artificial material (e.g trigrams) means it lacked mundane realism and has low ecological validity as does not apply to real world context as learning trigrams is unlike anything people would memorise in everyday life
- unable to conclude if duration of STM may be different for more important information such as remembering a phone number or directions
Explain patient KF
- suffered brain damage from motorcycle accident that impaired his STM
- impairment to his verbal processing but not visual
- supports WMM that there are separate STM components
what are capacity, coding and duration of the slave systems in the WMM
central executive: limited processing capacity
phonological loop: two second capacity, acoustically coded
visuospatial sketchpad: holds a max of three to four objects
