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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

STM:
- …… capacity store
-coding is mainly……
- capacity is between …. and …. items
- duration is about ….seconds

A

-limited capacity store
-coding is mainly acoustic
-between 5 and 9 items
-duration is 18 seconds

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2
Q

LTM:
– the permanent memory store
- coding is mainly ….
- the capacity is …..
- the duration can be up to a ….

A
  • coding is mainly semantic
  • the capacity is unlimited
  • duration can be up to a lifetime
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3
Q

We code ….. in the LTM, which refers to the meaning of the word

A

semantically

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4
Q

What did Bharick test?

A

the duration of the LTM

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5
Q

what is the definition of coding

A

The format in which information is written/stored in either STM or LTM

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6
Q

How do we code in the STM

A

We code acoustically, which refers to the sound of the word

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7
Q

How do we code in the LTM

A

we code semantically, which refers to the meaning of the word

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8
Q

What is the definition for capacity

A

refers to how much information can be held or stored in either STM and LTM

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9
Q

What is Millers magic number for capacity

A

7+-2

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10
Q

What did Baddeley test in his recall experiment

A

coding of the STM and LTM

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11
Q

What is one way you can increase STM capacity

A

Chunking. By grouping information into smaller units we are more likely to remember more information

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12
Q

define duration

A

how long we can retain information in our STM and LTM

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13
Q

what was the aim of the Peterson and Peterson experiment

A

to test the duration of the short term memory

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14
Q

what was the aim of the digit span test

A

to test the STM capacity

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15
Q

what is a weakness of experiments that use digits to test memory

A

they are not representative of how our memory works on a daily basis and what we tend to remember, therefore limited application.

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16
Q

what is a weakness of Baddeley’s recall experiment for memory

A

-ppts were given random word lists that had no personal meaning- artificial stimulus
-isn’t representative as we tend to remember words with meaning
- can’t generalise findings to memory that doesn’t involve random word lists with no meaning
- therefore lacked external validity

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17
Q

who proposed the multi store model

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

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18
Q

what is the multi store model made up of

A

sensory register, STM, LTM

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19
Q

What information enters the sensory register

A

-information from the environment enters via our senses e.g eyes, ears, nose and touch.

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20
Q

what is the capacity, duration and coding for the sensory register?

A

capacity: very high, constantly bombarded with info but most receives no attention
duration: less than a millisecond
coding: modality specific

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21
Q

what is maintenance rehearsal?

A

occurs when we repeat material to ourselves over and over again in order to keep information in our STM. If we rehearse long enough (elaborative rehearsal) information eventually passes to our LTM.

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22
Q

define displacement

A

when more information goes into the STM it overrides previous information

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23
Q

Describe the ‘serial position effect’ proposed by Glanzer and Cumitz (1966)

A

-when asking people to remember a list of words which is greater than the capacity of STM, they have a tendency to remember words from the beginning and end of the list.

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24
Q

define the primary effect from Glanzer and Cumitz research

A

the tendency for people to remember the first 5 or so words from the beginning of a word list

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25
Q

define the recency effect from Glanzer and Cumitz research

A

the tendency for people to remember the last 5 or so words from the end of a word list

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26
Q

how does the primary, recency effect and displacement support the MSM?

A

-primary effect: the first words are the best rehearsed and transferred to LTM.
-recency effect: the last words presented so are fresh and in our STM at the start of recall
-displacement: the newer words override previous so supports the importance of rehearsal.

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27
Q

How does Clive Wearing’s case study support the MSM

A
  • rehearsal mechanism to transfer info from STM and LTM doesn’t work for him, suggesting the STM and LTM are 2 seperate stores and there’s a process that transfers info from one store to another.
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28
Q

What happened to Clive Wearing?

A

He developed a virus that attacked his brain and left deficits to his memory.

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29
Q

What is a weakness of using Clive Wearing to support the MSM?

A
  • it is a case study therefore we can’t generalise the findings to a wider population because other people’s brains may work differently
    -there is evidence to suggest there is more than one type of LTM as he can still play the piano but can’t remember memories of his own lifetime.
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30
Q

Evaluate the strengths of a case study

A
  • in depth information relating to one person
    -high validity- meaningful and useful for researchers aim
    -gives a unique insight into a specific theory
    -qualitative data drawn- written and detailed
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31
Q

Evaluate the weaknesses of a case study

A

-researcher bias-researcher writes the report, could be close with the patient and form some sort of relationship
-unreliable/unscientific- can’t replicate findings
- can’t generalise findings to a wide population as everyone’s brains work differently and this is only tested from one individual

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32
Q

Who proposed the idea that there are 3 different LTM stores?

A

Mr Tulving

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33
Q

what are the 3 different types of LTM stores and what does each represent?

A

-episodic: our ability to recall events from our lives(birthdays) (‘knowing when’) - these memories are time stamped
-semantic: our knowledge of the world, facts about everything (‘knowing that’)- not time stamped
-procedural: our memory for actions or skills (‘knowing how’) -almost automatic - not usually time stamped

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34
Q

What is the process called when we want to recall information from the LTM to the STM according to the MSM

A

This process is called retrieval

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35
Q

How does information go from your sensory register to your STM according to the MSM

A

by paying attention to the information

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36
Q

what are the strengths of brain scans

A
  • they are objective (results can’t be faked and isn’t down to researchers interpretation)
  • highly scientific and can tell us important findings about brain regions and their involvement in cognitive tasks (brain processes)
  • accept research findings with less caution
    -no subjective bias (researcher opinion)
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37
Q

what is explicit/declarative memory?

A
  • recall of previous learned info that requires a conscious effort to receive
38
Q

what is implicit/non declarative memory

A
  • recall of previously learned info that requires no conscious effort to receive.
39
Q

Patient HM evaluation - strengths

A
  • episodic memory was severely impaired however semantic and procedural memories intact.
    -supports concept of different types of LTM
  • hippocampus is important for episodic memory and procedural isn’t effected by it’s removal
40
Q

Weakness of HM evaluation

A
  • in depth case study on one person so can’t generalise findings to wider population as not all brains are the same.
  • due to uniqueness of experience can’t apply it to other individuals
41
Q

Who proposed the working memory model (WMM)

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

42
Q

Why did Baddeley and Hitch propose the WMM

A
  • they argue memory isn’t just one store but a number of diff stores
    -evidence from ‘dual task performance’
  • the MSM was criticised for being too simplistic
  • the WMM is a comprehensive explanation of how STM is organised and how it functions and links to the LTM
43
Q

what are the 4 stores in the WMM

A
  • central executive
  • visuospatial sketch pad
    -episodic buffer
    -phonological loop
44
Q

what are the key functions of the central executive

A

-decides which slave system will be used to deal with attended info
-has very limited capacity so can’t store any info itself
-acts as a ‘boss’

45
Q

what are the 2 stores the phonological loop made from and what are their functions

A

phonological store- stores the words you hear- inner voice
articulatory store- allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds/words in a loop to keep them in working memory while needed) inner ear
- phonological loop- duration is 2 secs (very limited) and deals with auditory info (coding is acoustic)

46
Q

what are the key functions of the visuo-spatial sketch pad?

A

-stores visual/spatial info e.g if asked to recall how many windows are on your house
- limited capacity
-visual- what things look like (colour/shape)
-spatial- relationships between things(distance in relation to other objects)

47
Q

What are the 2 stores the visuo-spatial sketchpad is made of and what does each do

A

visuo-cache: stores info about visual items
inner-scribe: stores the arrangement of objects in the visual field

48
Q

what are the key functions of the episodic buffer?

A

-acts as a temporary store that intergrates visual, spatial and verbal info from other slave systems
-records events as they happen
-capacity of around 4 chunks - limited
-links STM to LTM and wider cognitive functions

49
Q

what is a strength of the WMM -research support

A

empirical evidence:
- Baddeley dual task performance
- ppts struggled performing 2 visual tasks at the same time but performed better in 1 visual and 1 verbal task
- shows there must be separate slave systems, strengthens validity of WMM

50
Q

what are weaknesses of the WMM

A

lack of clarity:
- limited understanding of the central executive
- patient EVR did well on reasoning tasks but poor on decision making tasks, suggesting partial damage to the CE as it may consist of separate subcomponents

51
Q

define interference

A
  • an explanation of forgetting (LTM) because one memory blocks another causing one or both memories to be distorted.
  • usually occurs when memories are similar or learned in quick succession
52
Q

what are the two types of interference and what are their functions

A

proactive: past info affects ability to recall new info (e.g forgetting new phone pin and keep putting in old)
retroactive: new info affects ability to remember old info (forget old gfs name and only remember current gf)

53
Q

what researchers investigated the effects of similarity (interference)

A

McGeoch and McDonald

54
Q

What experiment did McGeoch and McDonald propose when investigating the effects on similarity for interference

A

-they studied retroactive interference
-lab based study- extraneous variables are controlled- internal validity increased
-ppts learned a list of 10 words and were spilt into 4 groups (conditions) and had to learn another list of words
1) synonyms
2) antonyms
3) unrelated words
4) consonant syllables
5) numbers

55
Q

what were the findings of McGeoch and McDonald’s experiment investigating the effects on similarity for interference

A
  • ppts recall of original 10 word list was impaired/affected by the new learning
    -ppts whos 2 word list was synonyms had the poorest recall
  • this supports the fact that interference is strongest when materials are similar
56
Q

what are strengths of interference as an explanation for forgetting - research support

A
  • McDonald and McGeoch: similarities of information, if list B was synonyms recall was poor at 12%, if list B was nonsense syllables recall was better at 26%
  • supports main assumptions of interference theory (retroactive) new info disrupted previously learned info
    however: artificial stimuli, lacks mundane realism, can’t generalise to every day tasks
  • Baddeley + Hitch: asked rugby players to recall names of teams they played
  • those who played all matches had poorer recall.
  • interference was linked to number of games played, can effect memory recall in everyday situations
57
Q

What does the retrieval failure theory suggest

A

-a form of forgetting, occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory.
-info is available but cannot be recalled due to the absence of appropriate cues

58
Q

what is a cue

A
  • anything that serves as a reminder and triggers info from being retrieved
59
Q

what is the encoding specificity principle?

A
  • Tulving’s research summarised this principle
  • if a cue is going to be helpful it has to be both 1) present at encoding 2) present at retrieval
    -if they are different there will be some form of forgetting
60
Q

define encoding and retrieval

A

encoding- when we learn the material
retrieval- when we recall the information

61
Q

what are the 2 types of cues and what do they mean

A
  • context dependant: external cues related to the environment
  • state dependant: internal cues related to a mental state
62
Q

what is a weakness of McGeoch and McDonald’s study

A
  • they used a list of unrelated words and ppts are motivated by experimental context rather than real-life incenties to remember.
  • lab study- may not represent real-life memory processes
    -lacks mundane realism and external validity
    -therefore hard to generalise findings beyond lab settings
63
Q

what was the study proposed by Baddeley and Hitch on real-world applications of interference theory

A

-used a group of rugby players and asked them to recall names of teams they played throughout the season. Some played all matches and some didn’t due to injuries
-found that those who played all matches had poorer recall of the team names
- this shows interference can affect memory in everyday situations
- in this case interference was linked to the number of games played

64
Q

Explain the experiment devised by Overton (1972) on the impact of state-dependant cues on memory recall

A

-lab experiment
- ppts were given 4 conditions
1) learning words drunk and recalling drunk
2) learning words drunk and recalling sober
3) learning words sober and recalling drunk
4) learning words sober and recalling sober
- ppts who’s state and contexts were the same (encoding and retrieval) had higher recall accuracy
- therefore being in the same cognitive state can enhance memory performance

65
Q

Explain the experiment devised by Godden and Baddeley on the impact of context-dependant cues on memory recall

A

-used 18 divers, independent group design, lab study
-ppts were given 4 conditions
1) learnt on land, recalled on land
2) learnt on land, recalled underwater
3) learnt underwater, recalled underwater
4) learnt underwater, recalled on land
- in non matching conditions accurate recall was 40% lower
- therefore when external cues are different at learning and recall then retrieval failure is likely to occur

66
Q

What is the weakness of these context dependant retrieval failure findings from studies

A

-lack ecological validity due to artificial environments of learning and recall
-Baddeley argued that contexts have to be very different before an effects is seen. It is difficult to find conditions in real life which are as extreme such as water and land.
- therefore the findings are limited, this weakens are acceptance of the theory

67
Q

what is an eye witness testimony

A

refers to an account given by people of an event they may have witnessed

68
Q

what is misleading information

A

refers to incorrect information given to the eyewitness

69
Q

what is a leading question

A

a question that, either by its form or content suggests a desired answer or leads to a desired answer

70
Q

explain post-event discussion

A

a conversation between co-witnesses or an interviewer and an eye-witness after a crime has taken place which may contaminate a witness’ memory from the event

71
Q

what are weaknesses of research into misleading information as a factor affecting EWT

A

-studies may lack external validity due to controlled environment- Foster found if ppts thought they were watching a real life crime and their responses would count in trial, their identification was more accurate, so in real life other factors such as stress and concentration may override lab effects
- individual differences- individuals across all age groups had greater accuracy when identifying people from own age group

72
Q

what is a strength of research into misleading information

A
  • real world application- has important uses in the criminal justice system
    -psychologists can help to improve the way the legal system works, as police officers need to be very careful with how they phrase their questions
73
Q

How did Loftus and Palmer study the effects of leading qs on EWT using a lab study

A
  • ppts watched a clip of a car accident and gave qs about it
    -the leading q was : ‘ how fast were the cars going when they ….. each other.’
  • they used 5 different verbs to see how their answers would change
    1) hit- speed given : 34mph
    2) contacted- 31.8 mph
    3) bumped- 38.1 mph
    4) collided - 39.3 mph
    5) smashed- 40.5 mph
74
Q

Describe the conformity effect proposed by Gabbert (2003)

A

-effects of post-event discussion
- independent group design
-ppts watched a different video of the same crime and were told to discuss what they had seen
-71% of ppts included details in their recall from their partners video
- in control group where ppts didn’t discuss after the corresponding figure was 0%.
- therefore witnesses often go along with each other, weather to win social approval or they think the other witnesses are right and they are wrong- conformity effect.

75
Q

Describe the experiment proposed by LaRooy investigating the impact of repeat interviewing on eyewitness accuracy

A
  • controlled experiment design
  • ppts watched a staged crime and were divided into 2 groups with different conditions 1) interviewed once 2) multiple interviews at different times
  • repeated interviewing had the potential to introduce inaccuracies and inconsistencies in EWT, impacting recall
    -therefore repeat interview can effect the accuracy of EWT as comments made by the interviewer can become incorporated in the recollection of data
76
Q

define misleading information

A
  • information that may not be accurate due to leading questions or post-event discussion
77
Q

what are factors of physiological arousal that occur

A
  • increased heart rate
  • rapid breathing
  • dizziness
  • lack of concentration
78
Q

what is the positive effect of anxiety on EWT

A
  • witnessing a crime creates anxiety
  • anxiety triggers flight or fight response
  • our alertness increases and improves our memory as we become more aware of cues in the situation
  • therefore recall is better
79
Q

what is the negative effect of anxiety on EWT

A
  • witnessing a crime creates anxiety
  • creates physiological arousal - ‘autonomic nervous system’
  • prevents us from paying attention to important cues
  • therefore recall is worse
80
Q

Describe how Yuille and Cutshall investigated the positive effects of anxiety on EWT accuracy

A
  • interviewed witnesses of a real-life shooting after 4-5 months
  • open ended qs were asked to minimise leading qs
  • they were also asked about their stress levels during crime
  • during high anxiety event memory was high with little difference from original interview
  • even included details such as number of shots fired
  • therefore showing how anxiety had a positive effect on recall accuracy
81
Q

what are weaknesses of Yuille and Cutshalls research

A
  • lacks internal validity, proximity may have influences recall and potentially enhance the accuracy of EWT, introduces a confounding variable, challenging to establish cause and effect
  • unethical, ppts may suffer psychological harm. The process of asking about an emotional event could be distressing and retraumatising
82
Q

Describe how Johnson and Scott investigated the negative effects of anxiety on EWT accuracy

A
  • independent group design
  • 1) man ran into the same room as ppts and carried a greasy pen (low anxiety)
    2) man ran into the room carrying a bloody knife (high anxiety)
  • thy were asked to identify the man from a set of 50 photos
  • in ‘high anxiety’ condition ppts were less accurate at identifying the man (33% accuracy)
  • in ‘low anxiety’ condition ppts were more accurate when identifying man (49% accuracy)
  • therefore anxiety created a negative impact on eyewitness accuracy
83
Q

what does the tunnel theory memory suggest

A

a witness’s attention narrows to focus on a weapon, because it is a source of anxiety/threat

84
Q

what does the inverted U diagram suggest about performance and anxiety

A
  • low levels of anxiety produce lower levels of recall accuracy
  • memory becomes most accurate as the level of anxiety increases and reaches the optimum point (the middle)
  • however any more anxiety past this optimum, recall suffers and becomes impaired
85
Q

what is a criticism of weapon focus (tunnel theory)

A
  • Pickel study
  • suggests impaired recall may be due to surprise rather than anxiety
  • tested this with 4 conditions : raw chicken, handgun, scissors and a wallet
  • ppts recall was impaired in high surprise (chicken) rather than the high threat
86
Q

How can we improve the accuracy of EWT

A
  • the cognitive interview technique (Fisher + Gieselman)
  • questioning technique used by the police to enhance retrieval of information from the witness memory
87
Q

what are the 4 stages of cognitive interview

A

1) report everything - can help trigger cues and recollection of memories
2) reinstate the context- state and context cues trigger memory
3) reverse the order- prevents schemas from influencing recall
4) change perspective- prevents pre-existing schemas from influencing recall

88
Q

what are the strengths of the cognitive interview

A
  • effectiveness, Kohnken did a meta-analysis and found the CI increased accurate information by 34%, however these were lab studies so may lack ecological validity so may lack generalisability
    supporting research- Fisher field experiment, trained some policemen to use CI and some not . Found the CI gave 47% more accurate information
89
Q

what are weaknesses of the cognitive interview

A
  • increase in inaccurate information, Kohnken found an 81% increase in correct info but 61% increase in incorrect info when compared to standard interview
  • cognitive interview is time consuming, also requires special training which many forces aren’t able to provide
  • may not be as applicable as we thought
90
Q
A

Psychology (9 decks)

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