Relationships

Question 1

what is the basis of evolutionary explanations for partner preferences theory

Answer 1

• every species has one aim which is to reproduce and pass on their genes

Question 2

explain intra sexual selection (mate competition)

Answer 2

• males compete with each other for a female (members of same sex compete)
  -which ever male wins can pass on their genes, whatever trait leads to the success will also be passed on
• in many species males have characteristics such as brighter colouration/exaggerated tails that serve to attract females
• suggests in many species females do the choosing

Question 3

explain inter-sexual selection

Answer 3

• one sex chooses which member of the opposite sex to mate with
• the strategies that males use to select females or females use to select males

Question 4

explain the ‘sexy son hypothesis’ by Donal Fisher

Answer 4

-when a female mates with a male who has a desirable trait, this ‘sexy’ trait gets inherited by her son.
- increases the likelihood that successive generations of females will mate with her offspring.
-from a male perspective, males look for youth and physical attractiveness, normally signs of good health as it’s a sign of their fertility and reproductive value
- women deserve older males with wealth and resources as rich men will be able to provide resources for offspring

Question 5

what is a weakness of inter-sexual selection

Answer 5

Gender bias in short term mating strategies
- we talk about how men have a desire for casual sex and want as many women as possible, however this trait couldn’t of evolved without willing females
- every time a man has sex with a new female partner, the female is also having sex with another new partner

Alternative explanation
- theory says that males prefer youth because it’s a sign of good fertility
-however, other psychologists say that perhaps the reason is actually because of social power
- younger women would be easier to control and therefore males can establish their dominance easier

Question 6

what is research support for inter-sexual selection

Answer 6

• Hatfield and Clarke sent male and female students out across a university campus, approaching other students individually
• asked ‘ I have been noticing you around campus, I find you attractive, will you have sex with me?’
• not a single female agreed to the request (0%), whereas 75% of males did
• this immediately supports the view that females are choosier than males when it comes to selecting sexual partners, and males have evolved a different strategy to ensure reproductive success

Question 7

what are the three factors affecting attraction

Answer 7

1) self-disclosure
2) physical attractiveness
3) filter theory

Question 8

explain what self disclosure is

Answer 8

• involves revealing personal information about yourself
• romantic partners reveal more about their true selves as the relationship develops
• these relations strengthen the relationship if used appropriately
• people reveal more info to those they like and also like those who reveal intimate info to them

Question 9

explain the social penetration theory in self disclosure

Answer 9

• gradual process of revealing your inner self
• involves reciprocal exchange of information, leads to deep understanding of each other lives
• as they increasingly disclose more and more, romantic partners ‘penetrate’ more deeply into each others lives
• Altman and Taylor use the onion metaphor

Question 10

what are the layers of the onion for the social penetration theory (self-disclosure)

Answer 10

1) biographical data (age, gender, name)- low risk info
2) preferences (clothes, food + music)
3) goals, aspirations
4) religious convictions
5) deeply held fears + fantasies
6) concept of self (self esteem)- high risk info

Question 11

what do Reis and Shaver say about reciprocity in relationships

Answer 11

• there has to be a reciprocal element to self disclosure
  -there must be a balance of self-disclosure between both partners in a successful romantic relationship, which increases feelings of intimacy and deepens the relationship

Question 12

A03
what are the strengths of self disclosure (research support + real life application)

Answer 12

1) research support- Hendrick studied heterosexual relationships and found strong correlations between self disclosure and measures of satisfaction (happiness in relationship)
- however may not apply for homosexual relationships
-correlations don’t show cause and effect

2) real life applications- Hass and Stafford found that 57% of gay men and women said that open and honest self-disclosure was the main way they maintained their relationships
- this finding demonstrates the value of psychological insight (understand how important self-disclosure is)

Question 13

A03
what are the weaknesses of self-disclosure

Answer 13

1) cultural differences- importance of self-disclosure is not true for all cultures
-Tang et al 2003 reviewed research regarding sexual self-disclosure
-concluded that men/women in the USA disclose significantly more than men/women (collectivist v individualistic)

Question 14

Physical attractiveness
-explain the matching hypothesis (Walster et al 1966)

Answer 14

• when seeking romantic partner we want their social desirability’s to match our own. we must first assess our own ‘market value’ and then select best available candidates
• by opting for those who are similar to you, it maximises the chances of success
• we make realistic choices based on what we want and what we think we can get based on our own market value

Question 15

Physical attractiveness
- explain the halo effect

Answer 15

• an explanation for the importance of attractiveness
• idea that people are judged to be attractive are typically perceived in a positive light for other traits
• e.g Dion (1972) found that attractive ppl consistently rated as successful, kind and social when compared to unattractive ppl
  -meaning that we not only believe that good looking ppl are more physically attractive, we expect them to have other desirable characteristics

Question 16

A03
What are the weaknesses of physical attractiveness as a factor affecting attraction

Answer 16

1) complex matching: research fails to find consistent link between physical attractiveness and partner preference
- Sprecher and Hatfield explain this by arguing that physical attractiveness is just not the sole factor that determines a relationship and that a person may compensate for a lack of physical attractiveness with other traits e.g money, status or perdsonality
- this is called complex matching and can explain why people are able to attract partners for physically attractive than themselves by affecting compensatory assests

2) implications of sex differences: Meltzer found that there was a strong connection between marital satisfaction and physical attractiveness for men but not for women. This has implications for women as they are more likely to experience low self-esteem due to the constant pressure to look good in order to keep their partner happy
- low self-esteem haha been linked to the onset of mental disorders such as depression and therefore me mental health professionals should use this research to inform their treatment

Question 17

A03
What is a weakness of the matching hypothesis

Answer 17

• may not be that important in initial attraction
• in an online dating study, researchers found no evidence that dating decisions were based on a similarity of attractiveness between themselves and a potential date
• instead there was a preference for attractive partners in general, suggesting people DO NOT take into consideration their own looks when choosing a date

Question 18

A03
What is a strength of the halo effect theory

Answer 18

• Palmer and Peterson found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people
• the halo effect was so powerful that kit persisted even when participants a knew that these ‘knowledgeable’ people had not particular expertise
• researchers have also found that students rate ‘attractive’ teachers as better teachers

Question 19

A01
Explain the filter theory as a factor affecting attraction

Answer 19

• people filter possible mates from a range of eligible candidates
• the theory suggests that people use different methods at different levels of the process
• we start with social variables such as race or class
• we then move to more individual and internal values such as people’s personality
• for social variables we are likely to seek similarity whereas for internal values it may be more important to seek complementary characteristics

Question 20

A01
What are the 3 filters as part of the filter theory

Answer 20

1) social demography
2) similarities in attitudes
3) complementary of needs

Question 21

A01
Explain what is meant by the filter social demography

Answer 21

• factors influencing the chances of potential partners meeting each other in the first place
• these factors include:
  -geographical location
  -social class
  -level of education
  -ethnic group
  -religion

Question 22

A01
Explain what is meant by the filter similarity in attitudes as part of the filter theory

Answer 22

• partners will often share important beliefs and values, partly because of the field of potential partners has already been narrowed down by the first filter to those who have significant social and cultural characteristics in common
• partners who are very different in attitudes and values are not considered for long term relationships and are filtered out

Question 23

A01
Explain the filter complementarity of needs from the filter theory

Answer 23

• concerns the ability of romantic partners to meet each others needs, two partners compliment each other when they have the traits that the other lacks
• e.g young women with no resources may look for older men with wealth
• one partner may like to nurture and the other may like to be nurtured, complimenting each other
• at the end of the filtering process we are left with a small field of desirables

Question 24

A03
What research shows that complementary oil needs is the most important for long term relationships

Answer 24

• Kerchkoff and Davies conducted a study using students in a relationship for 18 months (short term) with those in a relationship for over 18 months (long term)
• using self report questionnaires, the study found that attitude similarity was the most important factor up to 18 months, however in the long term couples, complimenting each others needs became the most important factor

Question 25

A03
What are the weaknesses of the filter theory as a factor affecting attraction

Answer 25

1) lack of temporal evidence: online dating apps such as Tinder may have changed the necessity for certain social demographic variables such as proximity, social class and religion
- these apps give individuals a wide range of options and it’s likely that you will ‘match’ with people of a different culture, ethnicity etc
- therefore filter theory lacks temporal validity because the way in which romantic relationships start is vastly different to 70 years ago

2) complimentary of needs may not be important
- Dijkstea and Barelds studied 760 college students on an online dating website
- they were asked to rate personality characteristics they seek in their partner
- they found strong correlations between individuals own personality and their ideal partner’s personality
- this lent support to the similarity filter but not the complimentary of needs filter

3) similarity is an effect not a cause
- evidence suggesting that people aren’t initially attracted to each other because they are similar
- Anderson found in a longitudinal study that partners became more similar in their emotional responses over time, called emotional convergence
- further research discovered an alignment effect on long term relationships
-romantic partners overtime bring their attitudes into line with each others, again suggesting that similarity is an effect of initial attraction not the cause

Question 26

A01
What are the two economic theories for relationships

Answer 26

1) equity theory
2) investment model

Question 27

A01
Explain what the equity theory of relationships suggests

Answer 27

• people strive to achieve fairness in their relationship
  -inequity has the potential to cause distress
• this happens when one person gives a great deal and gets little in return and the same when those receive a great deal and give little in return
• equity refers to the persons perceived inputs and outputs, not equality

Question 28

A01
What is meant by the perceived ratio of inputs and outputs

Answer 28

• inequity doesn’t necessarily mean inequality
• two individuals can put in variable amounts and still maintain equity
• this is bc a person holds subjective views on the relative inputs and outputs of themselves and their partner
• if we fear inequality in our relationship we may try and change our input and outputs to restore equity
• it is not the size or amount of the rewards or costs that matter

Question 29

A01
What are the key feelings and individual would feel if they give more than they are receiving

Answer 29

• anger
• hostility
• resentment
• humiliation

Question 30

A01
What are the key feelings an individual would feel in they are receiving more than they are giving

Answer 30

• guilt
• discomfort
• shame

Question 31

A03
What are the strengths of the equity theory of relationships

Answer 31

1) support from monkeys: Bronsan and De Waal found that female monkeys became very angry of they were denied a reward of grapes in return for playing a game
- when another monkey who was not playing the game received grapes instead, the monkeys got so angry they hurled food at the experimenters
- suggests that the importance of equity in relationships has ancient origins

Question 32

A03
What is a weakness of the equity theory of relationships

Answer 32

1) gender differences: men and women are not equally affected by inequity, women tend to perceive themselves as more under benefitted and less over benefitted
- De Maris argues that this is because females have the greater relationship to focus and are more sensitive to injustices
- the consequence of this is that it’s therefore women who are more likely to initiate a breakup

Question 33

A01
Explain the investment model as a theory of relationships

Answer 33

• suggests that maintenance of a relationship is determined by commitment
• in this context commitment refers to the likelihood that the relationship will persist
• commitment can be strengthened by satisfaction and investment and weakened by alternatives to relationship

Question 34

A01
How is satisfaction of a relationship measured

Answer 34

(rewards - cost)
- if profit of this is large then satisfaction occurs

Question 35

A01
What is meant by the term investment

Answer 35

• anything a person puts into a relationship that will be lost if it ends

Question 36

A01
What is meant by the term intrinsic investments

Answer 36

• when time, personal info e.g self disclosure is put directly into a relationship

Question 37

A01
What is meant by the term extrinsic investments

Answer 37

• shared things that may be lost e.g shared pet, network of friends and children

Question 38

A01
What is meant by the term quality of alternatives

Answer 38

• an attractive alternative means they may leave the relationship
• if no attractive alternative exists they may maintain the relationship (increases satisfaction)

Question 39

A03
What are strengths of the investment model as a theory of relationships

Answer 39

1) Research support: Rusbult asked college students in heterosexual relationships to complete questionnaires over a 7 month period. They kept notes about how satisfactory their relationship was compared with others and how much they had invested in it
- research showed a strong correlation of satisfaction, comparison level for alternatives and level of investment with commitment to relationship as factors to a relationship maintenance

To follow up: a metal analysis was conducted by Le at al about the importance of commitment as an indicator of relationship stability
- they analysed data from nearly 38000 participants in 137 studies over a 33 year period, and found that satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment size all predicted relationship commitment
- relationships in which commitment was greatest were the most stable and lasted the longest, whereas a lack of commitment was a particularly strong predictor of whether relationships would break up
- these findings were true for both women and men, across all cultures in the analysis and for homosexual couples as well as heterosexual couples

2) Rusbult and Martz applied the investment model to abusive relationships
- they asked women living in refuges why thy had stayed with their abusive partners instead of leaving them as soon as the abuse began
- as predicted by the model, women had felt the greatest commitment to their relationship when their economic alternatives were poor and their investment was great

Question 40

A03
What is a weakness of the investment model as a theory of relationships

Answer 40

1) Rusbult only talks about current investments
- Goodfriend and Agnew argue that the investment model should include not only things that have already been invested in the relationship but also any plans that partners have regarding the relationship
- when partners break up they might not only lose investments made but also the possibility of achieving any future plans they had made with that partner
- for example, partners may stay in a relationship because of the current balance of investments but because of the motivation to see their future plans achieved

Question 41

A01
What does Duck suggest about the breakdown of relationships

Answer 41

• he argues that the ending of a relationships is not a one off event but a process that takes time
• this process consists of four distinct phases
• the break up begins once a partner realises that they are dissatisfied with the relationship and distressed about the way things are going

Question 42

A01
What are the 4 stages that Duck proposed for the breakdown of relationships

Answer 42

1) Intra-psychic stage
2) Dyadic phase
3) Social phase
4) Grave-dressing stage

Question 43

A01
Explain the intra-psychic stage (stage 1) of Duck’s phase model for the breakdown of relationships

Answer 43

• one of the partners becomes more dissatisfied with the relationship, however don’t tell their partners yet
• the individual feels burdened with resentment
• inequitable relationships are much more likely to create dissatisfaction than equitable ones
• there is internal conflict, consideration whether the individual may be better off out of the relationship
• in some cases some people will end the relationship without a discussion

Question 44

A01
Explain the dyadic phase (stage 2) from Duck’s phase model of the breakdown of relationships

Answer 44

• individuals will confront their partner and discuss their feelings and discontentment and future of the relationship
• feelings of guilt and anger are likely to surface
• individual may discover their partner also has concerns to air
• the relationship could be saved but only if both partners are motivated to resolve their issues
• marital partners may seek couples counselling

Question 45

A01
Explain the social phase (stage 3) from Duck’s phase model of the breakdown of relationships

Answer 45

• dissatisfaction now spills over to a network of friends and family
• hard to turn back from this point as it makes it harder for the partners to dent there was a problem and also harder to bring about a reconciliation
• This triggers friends of the couple to evaluate the relationship to either give reassurance/support or place blame on one of the partners, which inevitably results in the majority of the mutual friends having to take side
• however a final attempt at salvaging the relationship may be made by these friends, perhaps offering advice or helping resolve equity issues

Question 46

A01
Explain the grave-dressing stage (stage 4) from Duck’s phase model of the breakdown of relationships

Answer 46

• relationship has ended
• partners attempt to justify their actions
• partners must present themselves as trustworthy and loyal (key attributes to a new partner)
• partners will strive to construct a representation of the failed relationship that doesn’t put themselves in an unfavourable light
• partners may also strategically reinterpret their view of the partner e.g being initially attracted to their ‘rebellious’ side but would now label that as ‘irresponsible’
• key to this stage is ‘keeping good face’ and maintaining a positive social image
• self serving attribution bias: make self seem better

Question 47

A03
What are the weaknesses of Duck’s phase model

Answer 47

1) Fails to reflect the possibility of personal growth
- focuses on ‘personal distress’ and lack of acknowledgement of positives such as personal growth
- to address this issue Duck added a final stage called the ‘resurrection stage’ where individuals learn from the experiences of their previous relationships
- Tashiro and Frazer surveyed undergraduates and found that those who had recently reported a breakup, reported experienced emotional distress but also reported emotional growth and development
- evidence provides further for this key element,ent of the break-up process and the need for this to be acknowledged

2) criticism of the social phase: impact may vary by the type of relationship and age of people impacted
- for teenagers and young adults, romantic relationships may be seen as more transient and short term and even seen as the ‘testing ground’ for future longer relationships
- for older people the consequences of a breakup are more significant and costly therefore the behaviours are different
- Duck’s model gives a rather universal and generic outlook on this stage, whereas there are added complexities not being acknowledged

Question 48

A01
Explain the differences self disclosure face to face and computer-mediated communications (CMC)

Answer 48

• when we speak to someone we don’t just communicate with our words
• non verbal paralanguage may be more important than the words themselves e.g body language, eye contact may express meaning if the verbal communication doesn’t
• on the phone there are still paralanguage signals such as pauses and tone of voice which can communicate intention
• however all non-verbal communication is lost on the internet, meaning it is dependent only upon words and nothing else

Question 49

A01
Explain the reduced cue theory

Answer 49

• Sproull and Keisler suggest that CMC (computer-mediated communications) relationships are less effective than face to face ones as they lack many of the cues we normally depend on in ftf interaction
• these include non verbal cues such as physical appearance/body language
• CMC particularly lacks cues to our emotional state, such as our facial expressions and tone of voice
• leads to de-individuation as it reduces peoples sense of identity
• encourages disinhibition in relating to others
• therefore involving blunt and even aggressive communication
• as a result people are less likely to self-disclose and reveal information

Question 50

A01
Explain the hyper-personal model

Answer 50

• suggests that online relationships develop and end at a much higher rate than face to face relationships through the idea of ‘boom and bust phenomenon’
• high excitement level of the interaction isn’t matched by the level of trust between relationship partners
• in virtual relationships, the sender of a message has more time to manipulate their online image than they would in a face to face situation
• selective self presentation: people online have more control over what to disclose and they cues they send
• therefore it is much easier to manipulate self-disclosure to promote intimacy by presenting yourself in a positive way
• anonymity: when you’re unaware that other people do not know your identity, you feel less accountable for your actions and behaviour, so are more likely to self disclose

Question 51

A01
What is meant by the absence of gating

Answer 51

• a gate refers to any obstacle to the formation of a relationship
• face to face interaction is gated as it involves features that can interfere with development of a relationship e.g physical unattractiveness, a stammer and social anxiety
• therefore a huge advantage of CMC is the absence of gating (McKenna and Bargh)
• therefore relationship can develop quicker and self disclosure becomes more frequent and deeper
• absence of gating allows online relationships to progress quicker
• people can create online identities that they could never manage face to face

Question 52

A03
What are the weaknesses for the reduced cue theory

Answer 52

1) lack of research support
- reduced key theory suggests that through CMC there is an absence of non verbal cues, reducing success of relationship
- Walther and Tidwell suggests the cues are there, however they are just different e.g time taken to reply, emoticons and acrostics express expressions and non verbal cues
- therefore it’s still possible to convey emotional state through CMC and the theory can’t explain the success of online communication

Question 53

A03
What is a strength for the motivation to self-disclose

Answer 53

1) biological evidence to suggest there is a biological basis for self-disclosure
- increase MRI activity in parts of the brain linked to reward pathways, these areas are strongly activated when people are talking about themselves and less activated when talking about someone else
- significant as self disclosure may have evolved due to the rewards nature as it can improve chances of reproduction

Question 54

A03
What is a strength of the hyper-personal model

Answer 54

1) research support
- Whitty and Joinson found that online discussions were more direct, probing and intimate, however ftf conversations are often hedged around with ‘small talk’
- supports what the theory predicts as it suggests CMC relationships can be more personal and intense and are much more likely to self disclose

Question 55

A01
What is meant by a parasocial relationship

Answer 55

• one sided connections between a person and a media figure, such as a celebrity, influencer, or fictional character, where the media figure is unaware of the other person’s existence

Question 56

A01
What are the three levels of parasocial relationships proposed by McCutcheon and explain them

Answer 56

1) Entertainment-social: least intense loveable of celeb worship. Celebrities are viewed as sources of entertainment and fuel for social interaction e.g friends may enjoy discussing stories about them
2) Intense-personal: intermediate level, reflecting a greater involvement in a parasocial relationship with a celebrity e.g fan of Kim k may have frequent obsessive thoughts and intense feelings, like thinking they are soul mates
3) Boderline-pathological: strongest level, uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours e.g spending large sum of money on celeb related object, willing to perform illegal acts, mostly neurotic and psychotic individuals

Question 57

A01
What are the two theories for parasocial relationships

Answer 57

1) Absorption- addiction model
2) Attachment theory

Question 58

A01
Explain the absorption- addiction model as a theory of parasocial relationships

Answer 58

• McCutcheon explains the tendency to form parasocial relationships in terms of deficiencies in their own lives
  E.g may have a weak sense of self identity and also lack fulfilment in their everyday relationships
• parasocial relationships allows them an ‘escape from reality’ pr a way of finding fulfilment that they can’t achieve in their actual relationships
• absorption: pre-occupied with celebs existence and identifying with them due to deficiencies
• addiction: needs to sustain their commitment to relationship, by feeling a stronger and closer involvement leading to more extreme behaviours such as stalking

Question 59

A03
What is a strength of the absorption-addiction model

Answer 59

1) research support: Maltby investigated the link between celebrity worship and body image of the females that had reported an ‘intense personal parasocial relationship’ with a ‘celebrity’ they admitted
- the females tended to have a poor body image and were at high risk for developing a eating disorder
- confirms a central prediction of the model, those individuals that have deficiencies in their lives and specifically poor self image and esteem are more likely to develop a parasocial relationship

Question 60

A03
What are weaknesses of the absorption-addiction model

Answer 60

1) incomplete as it’s too descriptive and doesn’t have a complete explanation
- model describes deficiencies but doesn’t explain how these have led to the point of a PSR (parasocial relationship)
- not a clear origin of behaviour and how they develop
- therefore model it’s too vague and undermines the theory

2) methodological issue: it is questionnaire based
- researches gather data about participants lives and levels of celebrity workshop and attachment styles via self report methods
- problem because of social desirability bias, less inclined to give truthful account of ‘early attachment experiences’ as it is a socially sensitive area
- worry about being judged and perceived in a negative light

Question 61

A01
Explain the attachment theory of parasocial relationships

Answer 61

• attachment difficulties in early childhood
• Bowlby’s attachment theory suggests that difficulties may lead to emotional troubles later on in life
• individuals with insecure resistant attachment are more likely to develop parasocial relationships as they need to have ‘unfulfilled needs met’ due to early attachment struggles
• they are able to get this fulfilment in a parasocial relationship that is not accompanied by the threat of rejection, break up and disappointment that real-life relationships can bring