Research Methods

Question 1

Experimental
Method

Answer 1

Invovles the manipulation of an independent variable (IV) go measure the effect ok the dependent variable (DV).
Experiments may be laboratory , field , natural or quasi .

Question 2

Aim

Answer 2

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate , the purpose of the study .

Question 3

Directional hypothesis

Answer 3

States the direction of the difference or relationship

Question 4

Mom directional hypothesis

Answer 4

Does not stare the direction of the difference or relationship

Question 5

Variables

Answer 5

Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation .
- Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another .

Question 6

Independent variable (IV)

Answer 6

Some aspect of the experiments situation that is manipulated by the researches or changes naturally - so the effect on the DV can be measured

Question 7

Dependent variable (DV)

Answer 7

The variable that is measured by the researcher . any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV.

Question 8

Operationalisation

Answer 8

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured .

Question 9

Aims , we have a theory that energy drinks affect how much people talk . This is based on our understanding (having read a few research studies on the internet ) that energy drinks contain sugar and caffeine , and that these substances increase alertness making people ‘chattier’ .
-As luck would have it , a new energy drink speedily has come onto the market and we are keen to know whether it might affect the talkativeness of those who drink it .

Answer 9

-Now fhag we have an initia idea , the next step is to narrow the focus of our research to produce an aim .
-in psychological research , aims are developed from theories , like our energy drink theory above , except in psychology tje theories tend to be much more sophisticated and tend to be based on hours of research .
-aims are generally statement that describe the purpose of an investigation. In this case of our investigation, the aim would be something along the lines of:

Question 10

Hypothesis

Answer 10

Having written an aim, we need to formulate our hypothesis. Hypothesis is a statement that is made at the start of a study and clearly describes the relationship between variables. As stated by the theory. In this case of investigation, this might be :
-Energy energy drink people to become more talkative.

Question 11

Hypothesis can be directional or non-directional. In a directional hypothesis, the research and made clear sort of difference anticipated between two conditions or clips of people. This recent, directional hypothesis includes more or less, higher lower, or slower, etc.

Answer 11

People who drink energy drink become more talkative than people who don’t.
-Drink, water or less talkative than people who drink energy drink.

Question 12

And non-directional hypothesis simply states that there is a difference between conditions, all groups of people but, a directional iPod, the nature of the difference is not specified.

Answer 12

People who drink speed up to find out of alterness, compared with don’t drink speed up.

Question 13

Doing an experiment

Answer 13

We have decided to test and doing theory by using experimental method. Firstly, we are going to take glimpse of people, let’s say 10 in each group. Then, start with the first group, each person (each part – studies) kind of energy drink. A glass each. How many words, each body says in a five minute period immediately after what they had to drink.

Question 14

Deciding which type of hypothesis to use

Answer 14

Leaving aside the debate about whether or not this is a good experiment (it’s not really – but we are taking the whole process slowly exactly details of how we would work (it probably wouldn’t) which type of hypothesis should we choose ?

Question 15

Research is tend to use a directional hypothesis through the findings of previous research study suggest particular outcome. When there is no theory or previous research, or findings from early studies are contradictory, research as instead of studies, a nondirectional hypothesis.

Answer 15

Even though New and Ancy drink, the effects of caffeine and sugar and tortillas are well documented. Therefore upload direct to hypothesis on this occasion.

Question 16

Research sent to use directional hypothesis theory or the findings of proof research studies suggest a particular outcome. When there is no theory or previous recent or finding some studies or contradictory, searches instead I decide to use a nondirectional hypothesis.

Answer 16

Even though speed up is a new energy drink, the effects of caffeine and sugar stiffness are well documented. Therefore we will opt for a directional hypothesis on this occasion.

Question 17

Independent and dependent variables

Answer 17

In an experiment of research of changes or manipulates, the independent variable (IV) and record all affect this changes in dependent group (TV) or other variables potentially affect the TV should remain constant in properly run an experiment . This is so the research of gummy confident that any change in the TV was due to the IV, and the IV alone.

Question 18

Level of the IV

Answer 18

More effective, IV renew different experimental conditions. He simply gave some participants, how would we know how they are? You need to comparison. We could  either :
-Compare What is talkativeness before and after drinking energy drink.
-Two groups of participants – 32 drink energy drink with water (which is the way we have described study on the facing page).

Question 19

The cases the two conditions are no energy, drink, or drinking These are the two levels of the ID: to control (low speed up/drink of water) and experimental condition (energy drink).

Answer 19

Oh well, written hypothesis should make it easy to tell what the IV and DVR. Very proudly unveiled the directional hypothesis we have written for an investigation, comparing true groups of
-The group that drinks energy drink will be chatted in the group drink, drink water..
This is different from the facing page – I thought this is common or sizes, but still variables the relationship between .

Question 20

Personalisation of verbs

Answer 20

We have not yet managed to operationalise Abin the hypothesis in order to make it testable .
-Any of the things that are interesting, such as social behaviour, intelligence are thinking, often little fuzzy are not easy to define. Thus, in any study, one of the main task of the research ensured that the variables being investigated are fuzzy and possible. So much better hypothesis in the one above would be
-Drinking 300 mL, more words in the next five minutes and particles took 300 mil of water.

Question 21

See the difference? Now that are variables are personalised and complete, we are free to concentrate on more important things, this is how we’re going to.

Answer 21

Hehehr

Question 22

Extraneous variables

Answer 22

(V) any variable, other than the Independent variable (IV), that may affect a dependent variable (DV) if it is not controlled. These are essentially Newton variables that do not vary systematically with
The Iv .

Question 23

Confounding variables

Answer 23

A kind of Evie, but the key features that are confounding variable varies systematically with the IV. Therefore, we can’t tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable.

Question 24

Demand the characteristics

Answer 24

Any any CE from the researcher or from the research situation that may be enacted by participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation. This may lead to participating their behaviour within the research situation.

Question 25

Investigator effect

Answer 25

Any effect of the investigation behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, an interaction with, participants during the research process.

Question 26

Randomisation

Answer 26

Do use of child matters to control for the effects of bias, when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions.

Question 27

Standardisation

Answer 27

Using exactly the same formalise procedures and structures of all participants in a recess study.

Question 28

Extraneous variables

Answer 28

The Keaton experiment is that an independent variable (ivory) manipulated (changed), see how this affects the dependent variable (DV). The only thing that influence the TV is IV. Any other variables that might interfere with the IV (or the DV) should be controlled or removed.these additional, unwanted variables are called extraneous variables, and, where possible, identified at the start of the study by the researcher, who can then take steps and organise the influence.

Question 29

Many extreme variables are straightforward to control the third of the participants, the lighting the lab, etc. These are described as “ nuisance“that do not very systematically with the IV. These may be “muddy “experimental water so to speak, but do not confound the findings of the study. They may just make it harder to detect result.

Answer 29

…

Question 30

Confounding variables

Answer 30

Confounding variables changes systematically with the IV. This energy study. We have 20 participants to decide to use the first 10 participants who arrived for the energy drink condition. It happens at these first impossible are overexcited because they saw Prince William arrived at their school. This means that there are there was some delay for further part has arrived and by then people are less excited. This unexpected event means we have ended up with the second oriented IV – being excited or not.

Question 31

So when we come to our results and find out the speed up group chat, we can’t be sure if this is because of the drink or the excitement. The problem is that the motion various systematically with the IV and the explain changes in the DV.

Answer 31

…

Question 32

Demand characteristics

Answer 32

Cottisford adult passive with an experiment and are likely to be spending much of their time, trying to make sense with the new situation. They find themselves in. As such, participant reactivity is a significant extraneous variable in experiment of reset, and one that is voted for control. In the resource situation, part will try to work out what is going on. Certainly please may help them interpret what is going on. These clues (or queues) characteristics of the experimental situation may help to second-guess the experimenters intentions as well as the aims of the study

Question 33

Demand characteristics, two

Answer 33

What they look for tell them how they should behave in experimental situation. They may act in a way that they think it’s expecting overperformed to please experimenter (the police effect), although deliberately under – performed to sabotage results of the study (the screwed effect). Either way, participant behaviour is no longer an extraneous variable that may affect the DV .

Question 34

Investigator effect

Answer 34

What is the reactive lead to investigate effects. Considered this it is possible that during our energy drink study. As we are recording the words spoken by part, we may be inclined to Smol during our interaction with some participants and others. Given that we are expecting the energy drink group to speak more than the group water, we may unknowingly – in our unconscious behaviour – encourage a great level tattiness from the participants.

Question 35

Investigator affect two.

Answer 35

This is an example of an investigative effect, which first any unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome. As HUGH, space COOL I, C,AN (2006) points out, this can include expectancy effects and unconscious queues (such as those subscribed above).

Might also refer to any actions of the research that were related to the studies design, such as the section of the pot, the materials, instructions, etc. Leading questions, which are discussing relation to our assess of money are good example of the power of investigator effects. I’ve been mentioned an eyewitness testimony chapter) .

Question 36

Randomisation

Answer 36

In any investigation or research, you can take to minimise your photo extraneous/confounding variables on the
-One of these is randomisation, which is first use of chance method to reduce the research on cautious suspend designing investigation
-In short, this is an attempt to control investigator effect.
-For example, memory remain for participants to be calling once from list. The order of this should be randomly generated certain percent of each word is not decided by the research

Question 37

In primary participants are important number of difficult issues, all these conditions should be randomly determined. Example in the energy, energy drinks, experiment, we might want to know what quantity of energy drink causes chatting us. We may set up for experiment conditions: drinking water (condition), drinking hundred millilitres of energy, energy, drink(condition, B), 200 mL of energy drink (condition), and Twink, 300 mL of a huge drink (condition)

Answer 37

If all participants were to take part in all four conditions, the order in which these conditions were completed, would need to be randomised for each participants. (this is no alternative to
Counter balancing – discussed on the next bridge).

Question 38

Standard

Answer 38

As far as possible, with an investigation, or partition should be subject to the same environment, information experience. To ensure this, all procedures are, in other words, there is a list of exactly what will be done the study. This is standardised instructions that are read to each participant. Standardisation means that law – standardised changes in procedure, do not act as extreme as variables.

Question 39

Experimental design

Answer 39

The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

Question 40

Independent group

Answer 40

Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition

Question 41

Repeated measure

Answer 41

All participants take part in all conditions of experiment

Question 42

Matched pairs design

Answer 42

Part of participants are first marched on some variable (S) that may affect a dependent variable. Then one member of the pair is the scientific condition and the other condition. B.

Question 43

Random allocation

Answer 43

An attempt to control for participant variables in independent group design, which insures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.

Question 44

Counter balancing

Answer 44

And attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measure design: half the pot experience the conditions in one order and the other in the opposite order.

Question 45

Independent group

Answer 45

So an independent group design is when two separate groups of particles experienced due to conditions of experiment. If there are two levels of the independent variable IV, this means that all participants experience one level of the Ivy only. In our energy treat investigation, this would involve

Question 46

One group of protons (group one), drinking the energy drink (called this condition “the experimental condition)
-a different group of water, spoons (group 2) (condition, condition).

Answer 46

The performance of the two groups with them be compared. In this case, we would compare the difference in the main number of us spoken to 5 minute period for each group/condition.

Question 47

Repeated measures
Another way of carrying out the investigation would be to use a repeated measure design – all partic experience, both conditions of experiment.

Answer 47

-is Woodford, for example, experience collection, eight (energy, drink, condition, the experiment condition).
-Each part is with them. Basically to be tested in condition Big (glass of water condition, the control condition) .
-following this, the two main calls from both conditions would be compared to see if there was a difference.

Question 48

Matched pairs

Answer 48

In a matched person design, participants are put together on a variable of variables, relevant to the experiment. For instance, in the memory study, participants be matched on the IQ, as this might be a good indicator of their ability to record information.
-Participants with the first and second height will be put together with the third fourth and so on. Then one pot from each page would be allocated to a different condition of the experiment.
-This is an attempt to control the confounding variables of participant variables and often necessitates the use of a pre-test of the matches to be affected.

Question 49

Matched pairs – example

Answer 49

Go back to energy drink study, we might observe participants interacting in a room before the experiment begins and select the two people that appear to be the chattiest. One of the power would be placed in condition and the other condition B. We will then do the same with the third and foremost of participants, and so on. The experiment would be then the same way as in dependent group design.

Question 50

Evaluation – independent groups

Answer 50

The biggest issue with an independent group is at the participants who occupy different groups are not all the same in terms of participant variables.
-If a researcher finds a main difference between the groups and the dependent variable (DV) may be more stupid with the past variables and the effect of the IV. These differences may confounding variable, reduce validity of the values. To do with this problem, resources use rather allocation.

Question 51

2.evaluation – independent groups

Answer 51

Independent groups design less economical than reputation register, each participant, contributes a single result only.
-Twice as many participants would be needed to produce equity from data to that collected in the repeated
-This is the time/money spent on recruitment
-The strength of using independent group that the order affect are not a problem was, there are prob:’ repeated message decides.
Participants are also less likely to guest the aim.

Question 52

Repeated measures -evaluation

Answer 52

The biggest issue for repeated message that protest has to do at least two toes and the order of the task will be significant (i.e. there are order). The energy example, having the antidote may have a continuing effect on a p participant drinks, water, afterwards. To deal with this, research council, balancing.

Question 53

Evaluation – repeated measures 2.

Answer 53

Order effect also arise, because repeating two tasks could create boredom or fatigue then might deterioration in performers on the second task, so it might as well order the task are. Alternatively, participants performance may improve through the effects of practice, especially on a skill based task– In this case participants would perform better on the second task . Order acts as a confounding variable.

Question 54

If evaluation repeated measures 3.

Answer 54

More likely, that part of the experience or conditions of the experiment. For this reason, demand characteristics tend to be more of a feature of repeated measure design than independent groups.
-The strength of using repeated measures, all that participant variables are controlled (therefore higher validity) and for participants I need (therefore less times but recruiting them).

Question 55

Evaluation – matched pairs

Answer 55

Participants already take part in a single single conditions, order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem.
/although there is some attempt to reduce participant variables in this design, participants could never be much exactly. Even when they’re identical twins that uses much pairs, they will still be important differences between them that may take the DV.
-Matching, maybe top and see me inexpensive, particularly for pre-test is required, so this is the second economical and other design.

Question 56

Lab experiment

Answer 56

An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment, within which of the research amendment placed the ivy and course effect of the TV, whilst maintaining straight to control extremely variable.

Question 57

Field experiment

Answer 57

An experiment that takes place in the natural setting within which the research manipulates the ivy, and record the effect on the DV.

Question 58

Natural experiment

Answer 58

And it’s from my brother changing the Ivy is not bought by the resources but would’ve happened even if the reset had not been there. The research record effect on a DV they have decided on.

Question 59

QUAS I. Experiment.

Answer 59

I study that is almost program, but lack key ingredients.
– The Ivy has not been determined by anyone, the research or any other other person that the variables is in Big, such as being old or young.
Strictly speak. This is not an experiment.

Question 60

Strength of lab experiments

Answer 60

Lab experiments of high, control over confounded again, extraneous variables. This means a research can ensure that any effect on the dependent variable is likely to be the result of a manipulation of the independent variable. Thus, we can be more certain about demonstrating cause and effect (high internal validity).

Question 61

Two. Strengths of lab experiments.

Answer 61

Replication is more possible than other types of experiment because of the higher level of control.
This insures that new extraneous verbals are not introduced from repeating an experiment.
-Replication is vital to check the results of any study to see whether the fight is valid and not just one off.

Question 62

Limitations of lab experiments

Answer 62

Lab experiments made like generalisability. The lab environment may be rather artificial and not like everyday life.
– in an unfamiliar context, Laborhood, unusual ways, so the behaviour cannot always be generalised beyond the research setting (low external validity).
– as well as this participants are usually where they are being tested in a lab experiment (they may not know why) and this may also give rise to quotation, unnatural quotation behaviour (see demand characteristics described on page 170

Question 63

Meditations of lab experiments, 2.

Answer 63

Furthermore, the task spoons are asked to carry out in the lab is from may not represent every day experience, for instance, recording unconnected this as part of a memory experiment (low Monday realism).

Question 64

Strength of field experiments

Answer 64

Do field experiments have higher mundane realism than lab experiments because the environment is more natural.
– Does field is very produce behaviour, a small valid and authentic. This is especially the case as possible, but it may be on the whether they are being studied (high external validity).

Question 65

Limitations of field experiments

Answer 65

However, there is a price to pay for increased realism due to the lost controls of CVS and EVS.
– This means cool an effect between the IV and the DV and field studies may be much more difficult to establish spice replication is often not possible.

– There are also important issues. If participants are on Weather being studied, they cannot consent to being studied and so research my constitute and invasion of privacy.

Question 66

Natural experiments

Answer 66

Natural experiments are like a lab or field experiment in so far as the researcher measures the effect of an IV on a DV. However, what distinguishes a natural experiment is the researcher has no control over the IV and cannot change it – someone or something else causes the ivy to vary. For example, before and after a natural disaster or whether a child is in hospital at age 5 or 10.
– Note that it is IV that is natural, not necessarily the setting – participants may be tested in a lab. The DV may also be naturally occurring (exam results) or maybe devise by experiment er and then measured in the field or lab..

Question 67

Strength of a natural experiment

Answer 67

Natural experiments provide opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical ethical reasons, such as the studies of instantised orphans ().
– Natural experiments often have high external validity, because they involved the study of real world, issues and problems as they happen, such as the effects and a natural disaster on stress levels

Question 68

Limitations of natural experiments

Answer 68

I’m actually occurring event may only happen very early, reducing the opportunities for research. This also made a limit to Skype for generalising findings to other similar situations.
– Another issue is that participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions. (no, that is only applies when there is an independent group design).
This means that research might be less so the IV affected the DV. Example, in the study of Romanian orphans, the IV was whether children were adopted as late. However, there were lots of other differences between the groups, such may have made them escaping for prospective parents.
– Such research may be conducted in the lab and therefore made luck realism and demand characteristics may be an issue

Question 69

Quasi experiments

Answer 69

Quasi experiments have an IV that is spaced on an existing difference between people (age or gender). No one has manipulated this variable, simply exist and, unlike in a natural experiment,  the“independent variable “cannot be changed. Instance, if this anxiety, level of phobic and non-phobic patients were compared, the ivy of “having a phobia “was not have come through any experimental manipulation.
– As with a natural experiment, the DV may be naturally caring (exam results) or maybe advise by the experiment and measure in the field or a lab.

Question 70

Quasi, experiments, strength and limitations

Answer 70

– Quiz experiments are often carried out and controlled conditions in their forces and states of the lab experiment (replication).
– Quiz, experiments, like natural experiments, cannot randomly allocate to conditions and therefore there may be confounding variables.
– In addition, in both quiz, experiments are natural experiments, the IV is not to the change by the research and therefore we cannot claim that the IV has caused any observed change.

Question 71

Population

Answer 71

A group of people who are the focus of the research as interest, from which are smaller samples is drawn.

Question 72

Sample

Answer 72

A group of people who take part in the recent investigations. The sample is drawn from (target) population, and is presumed to be representative of that population, I stand as “fairly “for the population being studied.

Question 73

Sampling techniques

Answer 73

The method used to select people from the population.

Question 74

Bias

Answer 74

The context of sampling, when certain groups are over – or under – represented within sample selected . For instance , there may be too many younger people or too many people or one ethnic origin in a sample . This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population

Question 75

Generalisations

Answer 75

The extend to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the pppilaorpk . This is possible of the sample of participants is reprengative of the target population .

Question 76

For practical and economic reasions

Answer 76

It is usually not possible to include all members of a target population in an investigation so a reacher selects a smaller groip , known as the sample .

Question 77

Ideally the sample that is drawn will be representative of the target population so that generalisation of findings becomes possible . In practice , however it is often very dofffilt to repreeent populations in any given sample due to the iniwikirt diverse nature of pppularipns of people .

Answer 77

Inevitability then , the vast majority of sallows contain some degree of bias .Samplww are selected using a sample technique that aims to produce a representative sample . We will look at the main techniques used by psychologists .

Question 78

Random Sample

Answer 78

-A random sample is a sophisticated form of sampling in which all
Members of the target population have an equal chance of being sedated .
-The first step in selecting a radn
Sample is to obtain a complete list of all members of a target population .
- sexoenlu , Al of the names
Of the list are assigned a number . Finally , the actual sample is selected through the use of some LOTTERU MERHOD (a computer or picking numbers relm a hat ).

Question 79

Systematic Sample

Answer 79

-A systematic sample is when every nth member of the target population is selected , for example every 3rd house on a street or every 5th pupil on a school register .
- A SAMPLING FRAME is produced which is a list of people in the target population organised into , for instance , alphabetical order .
-A sampling system is nominated (every 3rd every 6th every 8th) person etc .
-may begin from a randomly determined start to rescue bias .researcher rhen works through the sampling frame until sample is complete .

Question 80

Stratified same

Answer 80

A stratified sample is a sophisticated form of sampling in which the COMPOSITON AOF THE SAMLLE REFLECTS THE PROPRITIONS of people in certain subgroups (starts) within the target population or the wider population .

Question 81

Stratified sample. (2)

Answer 81

To carry out a stratified sample , the researched first identifies the different strata that makes up the population .
-Then , the proportions need for the sallle to be relrewenriave are worked out .
-Finally , the participants that make up each state im are sleedredbusing random sampling .
(Let’s say In Manchester argh check the page 176)

Question 82

Opportunity sample

Answer 82

Given that representative samples of the target population are so difficult to obtain , many researchers simply decide to select anyone who happens to be willing and available (an opportunity sample ).
-The researcher simply takes the chance to ask whoever is around at the time of the study , for example in the street . (In the case of market research )

Question 83

Volunteer sample

Answer 83

-A volunteer sample Involved participants selling themselves to be part of the sample , hence it is also referred to as self-selection .
- To select a volunteer sample , w researcher may place an advert in a newspaper or on a common room noticeboard .
Alrernaigely , willing participants may simply raise their hand when the researcher asks .

Question 84

Volunteer sample

Answer 84

-a volunteer sample involves participants electing themselves to be part of the sample . Hence , it is also referred to as self-selection .
- To select a volunteer sample , a reswaecher may place an advert in a newspaper or on a common room noticebaprd .
-Alternaotbely , willing participants may simply raise their hand when the researcher asks .

Question 85

EVALUATION -Random Sample (1)

Answer 85

-A random sample is potnentislly unbiased .
-This means that confounding or extraneous variables should be equally divided between the different groups , enhancing n internal validity Z.

Question 86

Evaluation (2)- Random Sample

Answer 86

-however random sampling is difficult and time consulting to conduct . A complete list of the target population may be extremely difficult to obtain .
- furthermore you may end up with a sample that is still unrepresentative -the laws of probability suggest that random sampling is likely to produce a more repeesnwriwbe sample than OPPORTUNITT SAMPLING. X
-Howveer C it is still possible that the random method may select (example 20 female psychologists )
- in soffit on , selected participants may refuse to take part (which means you end up with something more like a volumetric sample )
- rhis particular issue applies to Al the methods below .

Question 87

Systematic sample -EVALUATION

Answer 87

-This sampling method is objective. 9’cs the system for selection has been established the researcher has no influence lede over who is chosen (this is even
Lprenrje gase or the start is randomly
selected ).
-As with random
Sampling , this method is this
Method
Is time
Consuming and , in the end ,
Participants
May refuse to take
Part
, resulting in a volunteer sample
.

Question 88

stratified sample
EVALUATION

Answer 88

This method produces a representative sample because it is designed to accurately reflect RHE composition of the population .
-Yjis
Means that generalisation of findings becomes possible
.
-Howeved , statification is not perfect . The identified starts cannot reflect
All the ways people are different , so
Complete reprentstiom of the target population is not possible .

Question 89

Opportunity Sample

Answer 89

is convenient . This method is much less costly in terms of money and then say random sampling . Because a list of members did the target population is not required and there is Ko need to divide tjenpppilafopn into different starts as there is in start field sampling .

Question 90

Negatives -EVALUATION

Answer 90

• on rhe negative side , opportunity samples suffer from two forms of bias .First , rhe sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it drawn from a very specific area such as one steeet in one town , so finish’s cannot be generalised to the target population .
  -second , the researcher has complete control over the selection of participants and for instance , may avoid people they do not like the look of (researcher bias ).

Question 91

Opportunity Samples

Answer 91

• On the meagibe side , the oppprutnity samples suffer from
• Tel forms of bias . First , the sample is unprensentaobe of the target populations it is drawn from a very specific area ? Such as one steer in one town , so findings cannot be gernalsoed to the target population . Second , the researches had complete control over the election of participants and , for instance , may Aldi’s people they do not look like the look of (researcher hows )

Question 92

Volunteer sample EVALUATION

Answer 92

• a cool yeee sample ks ways at kt requires minimal input from the researcher and is also less time consuming than other forms of sampling .
• -the researcher end up with apricpamfa who are lore engaged mkre so than someone who was stopped I t steer .
• VOLUNTEER BIAS Is a problem - asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile

Question 93

Volunteer bias

Answer 93

• VOLUNTEER BIAS Is a problem - asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile of person , fhat is one who is cutie and more likely to try to plewse tje reswvejr (which might then affect how far findings can be generalised ).

Question 94

Volunteer sample

Answer 94

Collecting a volunteer sample is easy . It requires minimal input from the researcher (they come to you )
-and so is less time consuming than other forms of sampling .
-Thw ewswwwdhee ends up with participants who are more engaged , so more than someone who stopped in the street .

Question 95

Volunteer bias

Answer 95

Is a problem . Asking for volunteers may attract a certain to “profile” or person that is one who is curious and more likely to please the researcher (which might then affect how far findings can be generalised ).

Question 96

Ethical issues

Answer 96

These arise when a conflict exists between the right of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic and valid and worthwhile data .

Question 97

BPS code of ethics

Answer 97

A quasi -legal documented produced by British Pyschological society (bps) that instructs psychologists in the uk about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants .
-The code is built around four major principles respect , competence , responsibility and integrity I .

Question 98

Ethical issues in psychology when a conflict or dynamic exists between participants right and researchers needs to gain a valuable and meaningful finding this conflict has implications for the safety and well-being of participants.

Answer 98

For instance, researcher may not wish to reveal true process of a research study to participants in order to study more natural behaviour. But is it acceptable to lie to them you know is it acceptable to tell part of they failed a test to study your response to failure.
This calls may be psychological distress apartments and is that justified?
What if they were made aware of this before hand, would that make a difference?
Let us consider the four m major issues that participants and researcher in psychology

Question 99

First major ethical issue – informed consent

Answer 99

At a basic level perspective, positive study should know what they are getting into before they get into it.
Inform concert involves making the web the angels of the research, the procedures, the rights (including the right withdraw partway through the investigation did they do wish), and also the date over useful.
Post Should make an informed judgement, whether or not to take part being coerced or feeling of life.
From the research point of view, asking for inform consent, may make the study meanness because participants behaviour will not be natural as they know that is the study.

Question 100

Deception

Answer 100

Deception means celebrity, misleading all withholding information from participants at the investigation.
This is linked to the above. Participants who have not received adequate information when they have agreed to take part (Woolworths, have been deliberately lied to) cannot be said to have given informed consent.
Despite that, there are occasions, where description can be justifieddoes not cause the pot and distress.
For instance, our entering study would probably be acceptable with another group group in a different substance, this may affect their behaviour

Question 101

Protection from H arm arm

Answer 101

As a result of their involvement, participants should not be placed at any more risks than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and psychological harm. The latter includes being made to feel embarrassed, in adequate or being placed under the undue stress or pressure.
An important feature of protection from Home, as mentioned above, is participants being reminded of the fact that they have the right to withdrawal from the investigation at any point.

Question 102

Privacy and confidentiality

Answer 102

Participles have the right to control information about themselves. This is the right of privacy. If this is invaded, then confidentiality should be protected. Confidentiality refer to right, and find nought under the data protection act, to have any personal data protected. The right to privacy extends to the area with the study took place such the institutions of geographical locations are not named.

Question 103

Way of dealing with ethical issues – PPS, code of conduct

Answer 103

The British psychological society, like many other professional bodies, has it own code of ethics and a set of guidelines.
We just have a professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting research – they won’t be sent to prison if they don’t follow them, but will do their job.
The guidelines are closing much to ethical issues on the facing page and attempt to change part of consideration during each face of research.
Guidelines are implemented by committee is in research institutions, who often use a cost benefit approach to determine whether the particular processes are ethically acceptable.

Question 104

Dealing with informed consent

Answer 104

Participants should be issued with the consent form. all relevant information that might effect their decision to participate. Assume the participants agree, this is then signed. For investigations involving children under age 16, signature to consent by parents is required. There are other ways of taking consent, which are described on the right.

Question 105

Presumptive consent

Answer 105

Rather than getting concerned from the plot themselves, similar group of people studies, acceptable. If this group agreed in the consent of the original participants is presumed.A

Question 106

Prior general consent

Answer 106

Participles give their permission to take part in different studies dash, including one that will involve reception. Sadly, parties are effectively consenting to be deceived

Question 107

Retrospective concent

Answer 107

Participants are asked for their consent (during debriefing) having already taken part in the study. They might not have been aware of their participation, or they may have been subjected to deception.

Question 108

Dealing with informed cons ENT

Answer 108

Participants should be issued with a consent letter, a form detailing all relevant information that might affect that decision to participate. Assuming for the participant agrees, sign. For investigations for children on 16, assignment of parental consent is required. There are other way of taking consent, which I described the right.

Question 109

Dealing with deception and protection from harm

Answer 109

At the end of the study, participant should be given a full deep breath. Within this, particular should be made aware of the terms of investigation, and any details they were not applied during the study, such as existence of other groups or experimental conditions. Do you know?

Question 110

Two. Dealing with deception and protection from Home.

Answer 110

Participant should also be reused for and must be given the wife with Georgia in the study and the right of the whole date if they wish. This is a particularly important if we respect consent is a feature of the study.
Participants may have natural concerns related to their performance within the investigation so should be reassured that your typical normal. In extreme cases of fans have been subjected to stress embarrassment, they may receive counselling which resources should provide.

Question 111

Do with confidentiality

Answer 111

Parcel details I had wouldn’t must be predictive. How much is more usual to simply record no parcel details. I maintain autumn Normandy and I.
Resources with Parsons using numbers initials and write out investigation.
In case study cycle is often initials when describing individuals.
Finally, if it is down practice during briefing and debriefing, participants are mindful that data will be protected through the process and all the data will not be Shared with other research.

Question 112

Pilot study

Answer 112

A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim of it is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales, et cetera, work. The aim is also to allow the research to make changes the modifications if that’s so.

Question 113

A a pilot study involves a handball participants, rather than the third number of them, and it’s to check that the investigation run smoothly

Answer 113

Is also important to investigate/recognise a pole or not restricted to experimental studies.
When self-report matters, such as question is issues, it’s helpful to try a question in advance and remove or reword, those that ambiguous or confusing.
In observational studies, a pilot study provides the way of checking before the real investigation is on to take it.
This may be an important part of training observers.
Insured, then, a pile of study allows the research to identify any potential issues, and to modify the design or procedure, saving type of money in the long run

Question 114

What is a single blind procedure?

Answer 114

We mentioned when discussing groceries at school, sometimes be told the aim of the research at the beginning of the study.
As well as this, other details, such as which condition of these were there in Home, but there is a condition.
This is not a single blind procedurenot much expectations is not revealed until the end of the study to control for the confounding effects of demand characteristics. New flush cod

Question 115

Double blind procedure

Answer 115

The double blind procedure neither of the participants or the researcher is MAD aware of the aim of the study. Sorry, not funny investigation (often at that party conduct investigation without knowing his main purpose).
Double blind procedures are often important feature of drug trials. Treatments may be admin departments by someone who is independent of investigation, and who does not know which drugs operas. If they don’t know what is process is receiving, the expectations cannot influence participant behaviour.

Question 116

Control groups and conditions

Answer 116

In the example of the drug for above group that receives the drug experiment group, and the group that receives a control group. We use the world control and research to refer to the control of variables so we use it to refer to the baseline.
Control is using many experimental studies for the purpose of comparison. If they’re changing behaviour of the experimental group is in the control group, then research a conclusion Come to conclusion of this effect within independent variable, assuming all other variables have the main constant).
Having two groups in an experiment is an independent group design, but we also have controlled additions in a repeated measure design.
Each participant takes part twice months in the experiment, and once in the control condition

Question 117

Naturalistic observation

Answer 117

Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which would normally occur

Question 118

Controlled observation

Answer 118

Watching and recording behaviour within an instructed environment, I.E one where some variables are managed.

Question 119

Covert observation

Answer 119

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge and consent.

Question 120

Over observation

Answer 120

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.

Question 121

Participant observation

Answer 121

The research should becomes a member of the group, whose behaviour he/she is watching them and recording

Question 122

Non participant, observation

Answer 122

The research remains outside of the group, whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.

Question 123

One form of observation. Observations provide psychologist with the way of seeing what people do without having to ask them (and studies involving self support).

Answer 123

They also allow researchers to study observable behaviour within a natural controlled setting. This method allows a research of the flexibility to study more complex interactions between variable.
The observation is often used within the next program as way, for example, of assessing the dependent variable.

Question 124

Naturalistic and controlled observations

Answer 124

I’m not trying to stick observations, take place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur.
Will aspect to the environment of free to vary. For instance, it would not make sense to study how senior management employees never taking the factory into Drag the whole of the workforce to artificial lab setting.

Question 125

Naturalistic and controlled observations (two)

Answer 125

This is much better to interact in the factory environment will normally take place.
There is sometimes useful to control certain aspects of the recent situation, so a controlled of observation may be preferred.
For example, Mary Ainsworth used controlled observation as part of strange situation studies.
Ein recorded the way in which children reacted to the mothers, and how they dealt with the introduction of a stranger, with a very speciasl two way mirror to record the data remotely so not to disturb the action.
In a controlled observation, there is some control over variables, including manipulating variables to observe effects and also control of confounding/extraneous variables.

Question 126

Covert and overt observations

Answer 126

Behaviour and may occasionally be recorded without obtaining the consent of the process.
Covert observation of those in which the participants are unaware they are the focus of the study, and never behaviour is a observed in secret covertly), say from across a room from my balcony, open the bracket, but rarely from behind a push).
Such behaviour must be public and happening anyway, if the opposite is to be ethical.
In contrast over observation, participants know their behaviour is being observed and have given the informed consent beforehand

Question 127

Participant and non-participant observations

Answer 127

Sometimes it may be necessary for the observer to become part of the group. They are studying, as it is the case with participant observations.
For instance, we might have them improved the study of the factory workers of management by having the research as joined in the workforce to produce a firsthand account.
Non-particular observations are when the research remains separate from those they are studying and record behaviours in a more objective manner. May often be impractical even impossible to join particular group so that nonpatient is the only option/such as middle-aged female research observing behaviour amongst year 10 student boys ha ha

Question 128

Evaluation – all observations.
Observations of behaviour have the benefit of capturing what people actually do come on which maybe unexpected behaviour. People often do not act the same as they would.
Observational methods are useful because they give special insight to behaviour.

Answer 128

One limitation of observation is observe bias. The observers interpretation of a situation may be affected by the expectation. This may be reduced by using more than one observer.
Another limitation is observation studies cannot demonstrate casual relationships – true of the virtual techniques may use experiments and aid in detecting calls – and affect relationships.

Question 129

Naturalistic and controlled observations evaluation

Answer 129

That’s realistic observation tend to have high external validity as fine as can often be generalised every day life.
This because the behaviour is studied with the department where it would normally occur.
That said, the lack of control over the research situation makes of the investigation difficult.
There may also be many Childers conveying/extraneous variables that make more difficult to touch any pattern behaviour.
Control observation in control may produce findings that cannot be as readily applied to every day life.
Confounding story is variables may be less of a factor so replication of the observation becomes easier.

Question 130

Evaluation covert and overhead observations

Answer 130

The fact that part is supposed to not know that they are being watched and remove the problem of the characteristics and it shows any behaviour that will be natural.
This increases the internal validity of the data gathered.
However, the ethics of the studies may be questioned as people even in public. May not wish to have the behaviours noted down.
For instance, shopping would generally be recognises a public public activity, but the amount of money people spent on the shopping trip is probably their own business.
Distance distance “over observations are more ethically acceptable, but the knowledge participants have that they are being observed they act significant influence on their behaviour…

Question 131

Participant and non-participant observations, evaluation

Answer 131

In participant observations, the researcher could experience the situation that the particles do, giving them increase insight to the lives of the people being studied. This may increase external validity of the findings.
There is danger, however, that the research may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and objectivity.
Some research refer to this, as native when the line between being research and being a participant becomes blurred.
Non-participant of sous research to maintain objective psychological distance from their hospice so there is less stage of them.
However, they really lose valuable inside to be possible as far to remove for the people behaviour they are studying.

Question 132

Behavioural categories

Answer 132

Do you want to talk about behaviour broken up into components that observed measurable (operationalisation )

Question 133

Event sampling

Answer 133

Behavioural event is first established in the research recorders event every time it occurs.

Question 134

Time sampling

Answer 134

The target individual group is versus sublist, and the researcher record their behaviour in a fixed timeframe say every 60 seconds.

Question 135

Issues in observational design.
Ways of recording data

Answer 135

All of the key influences on the side of any observations, how to research intense circle that data.
The research is simply. This is referred to us on struct of sufficient intense producer behaviour that are rich in detail.
This method may be appropriate when observation are small and scale four participants.for example, observing interaction between couple and therapist during counselling session.

Question 136

Ways of recording (two)

Answer 136

Often, however, there may be too much going on in a single observation for the recital at all. Therefore is necessary to simplify the target target behaviour that will become the main folks of investigation using behavioural categories.
This becomes a structured interview, although the distinction between structured and unstructured observations is not in respect, is useful to know, because the information that follows up structured observations.

Question 137

Behavioural categories

Answer 137

Order to produce a structure record of what research see , this is fast listening to break the behaviour to a set of behavioural categories. This is very similar that I do operationalisation that we came across on page 69. Target behaviours to be studied to be precisely to define and made observed one movable.

Question 138

The behavioural categories (two)

Answer 138

What is the photographic behaviour affection may be broken down, so that was the original category, such as hugging and smiling holding hands.
Each of these behaviours must be favourable there should be no need for interference system such as being loving.
27 might interpret this differently and thought it would not be reliable catch from.
Before the observation, research should’ve showed as far as possible all the way to behaviour with that behaviour.

Question 139

Sampling methods

Answer 139

Continuous recording of the is a key feature on structured observations, which all instances of behaviour recorded.
For very Compass behaviour, however, this method may not be practical or feasible. As such instruction observations, the research must use a systematic observations.

Question 140

Sampling methods (two)

Answer 140

 events are both counted number of times that particular behaviour occurs in target individual group.
For instance, event sampling of descent as a football match would mean counting the number of times places agreed with the referee.
Times supply involves reporting the behaviour within the priest of this timeframe. For example, in a particular football match, we may only be interested in one specific plan so we may make a note of what our target individual is doing 30 seconds.

Question 141

Evaluation
Structure versus unstructured

Answer 141

Sorted. Observations are involved the use of behavioural categories make recording of data, easy or systematic. The data produces likely to be your miracle which means that analyse and comparing the behaviour observed between particles more straightforward.
In contrast and starts observation produce quarters of data, which may be much more difficult toanalyse.

Question 142

Evaluation, unstructured observations

Answer 142

However, unstructured observations benefit for more richness and depth of detail in the data collected.
Though there may be a greater risk of observer bias with unstretched observations, as objective, behavioural Kutzke, that Are that a red feature structure observations are not present.
The research may only record those behaviours that catch their eye, and these may not be the most important or useful.

Question 143

Behavioural categories

Answer 143

Although the use of behavioural cues can make data collection more structure objective, it is important that such category is clear and ambiguous as possible. They must be observable, miserable and self evident. In other words, they should not require further interpretation.
Researcher should also ensure that all possible forms of the behaviour are included in the checklist. There should not be a dusting category in Richmond need different behaviours are deposited.
Finally category should be exclusive or not fourth instance difference between smiling and greeting would be very difficult to Discern

Question 144

sampling methods

Answer 144

Event sampling is useful when the talk behaviour happens quite in frequently and could be missed if time sampling was used.
However, if the specified event is too complex, observe my overlook portal if you think something.
Time supply effectively reducing the number of observations that have to be made. That said those instances behaviour might be on representative of the observation as a whole..

Question 145

Self-report technique

Answer 145

Any message in which apartment or state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviour and/or experienced since related to a given topic

Question 146

Questionnaire

Answer 146

A set of written questions (sometimes referred to as items) used to assess a persons thoughts and/or experiences

Question 147

Interview

Answer 147

I live in counter (face-to-face on the phone), but one person (interview) also set of questions to assess and interviewees thoughts and/or experiences. The questions maybe preset (as in a structured interview), so may develop on the interview goes along (unstructured interview).

Question 148

Questionnaires is probably the most common type, self-reports acrylic because they involve the Priya list of questions to which a Protestant response. Psychologist use question of success, thoughts and feelings. Study may simply consist of a question to find out the
Kind of dreams, people have all their personality type individuals personality.

Answer 148

A questionnaire, maybe use a part of experiment to assist the dependent variable for example, what the recent legislation of a specific recreational drug Are different on younger people oh or older people

Question 149

Open and close questions

Answer 149

There are a number of different possible start to question the questionnaire, but these can be broadly divided to open or close questions.

Question 150

Open questions

Answer 150

An open question does not have a fixed rate of answers and respondents are through to answering anyway Davis.
For instance, we might ask participants in our energy drinks from how they felt during investigation why they thought they became more talkative..

Open questions, 20 produce quality of the data that contain a wide range of different responses, but may be difficult to analyse.

Question 151

Close questions

Answer 151

Close questions, offer a fixed number of responses.
We might ask participants if they felt more talkative as a result of the energy drink and This restricts them, and only give some to Objede. The answer is a yes or no (quantitive data.
Alternatively, we might get them to write her so she could I felt after consuming the drink on a scale of one to 10 (quantitive data)
A quantitive data like this it’s usually easy to analyse, but it may like the depth and detail associated with open questions.
Know that close questions that produce qualitative data can be turned into quantitive data off I open bracket for example, counting the number of yes and no responses.

Question 152

There are three ways/types of interviews

Answer 152

Structured interviews.
Unstructured interviews
Semistructured interviews

Question 153

Structured interviews

Answer 153

Structured interviews are made up of fruit a timer set of questions asked an affix order.
Basically this is like a questionnaire, but conducted face-to-face (or over the phone) in real time, interviewer, asked a question and wait for a response.

Question 154

Unstructured interviews

Answer 154

Turn on switch, if you want to look like a conversation. They’re nice at questions, there is a general in that assessment topic will be discussed, and interactions tend to be free-flowing.
The interviewees encourage expanding elaborate their answers and was prompted by the interviewer.

Question 155

Semistructured interviews

Answer 155

Many interviews and most likely to fall somewhere between the two types describe up.
Sort of interview that one is most like eating out in every day life – job interview – is it good example of a semi structured interview.
There is a little present I’ve been worked out in advance for interviews are also asked to follow up questions based on previous answers.

Question 156

Evaluation strengths

Answer 156

Questionnaires are cost-effective.
They can get a large amount of data quickly because they can be distributed to last time so people (note that it is the number of people that is important as it’s the time of the volume of data collected).
A questionnaire can be completed without the research of being present, come on, as in this case of a postal questionnaires, which also reduces the effort involved.
The data of the questionnaires produce is usually straightforward to analyse, and this is particularly the case, if the questionnaire, compromises money fix choice, close questions (contrast this with interview data, below.
The data lens it self to statistical analysis

Question 157

Evaluation limitations

Answer 157

One major problem is that the responses given may not always be truthful for.
Response will be keen to represent themselves in a positive light and this may influence their answers.
Free sample. If I ask how often do you lose your phone, most people would underestimate the frequency. This is the form of them and characteristics called the social Desirability bias.
Questionnaires often produces a response bias, which is where is correspondence tend to reply in a similar way, for instance, always taking Jess or answering at the same favourite end of a rating scale.
This may be because respondent complete the questionnaire to quickly and failed to answer the question properly.
A particular form response bias, acquiescence bias, is discussed on the right

Question 158

Evaluation of structured interviews

Answer 158

Shut the interviews like questionnaires are straightforward to replicate due to their standby format. Standardised format.
The format also reduces differences between interviewers.
This is not possible I will give you the nature of the interview for interviews to deviate from the topic of the questions on this will limit the riches of data collected to collect As well as limit on expected information.

Question 159

Unstructured interviews

Answer 159

There Is much more flexibility and unstructured interview done and started interview. The interview will come follow-up points as they arise and is much more likely to get inside into the world of the interviewee, including collecting unexpected information.
However, this may lead to an increased risk of interview or bias, in addition, analysis of data from the answer to the interview. It’s not straightforward cut. The research on may have to sift through much irrelevant information and drawing firm conclusion to be difficult.
How did questionnaires there is a risk that interview is may lie for a reason l Or social desirability.
However, skilled and experienced interviewer should be able to establish official report with the participants for the Ethan system. Personal topics are discussed, any responses given a more truthful.

Question 160

What are open questions?

Answer 160

Open questions are questions, but there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer. Anyway they wish for why did you take up smoking

Question 161

Closed questions

Answer 161

Questions, so wish there is a fix with responses to tell me why the question set up example do you speak yes or no

Question 162

Likert scales

Answer 162

A likert scare was one word for indicates their agreement (otherwise) with a statement, using a scale of usually five words. The scale rages of struggle agreed, strongly disagree.

Question 163

A rating scale

Answer 163

Rating skills working in a similar way, but get responded, so I identify value that represents the strength of feeling about a particular topic, for example from various entertaining to not entertaining

Question 164

Fixed choice option

Answer 164

Fix choice option includes a list of possible options and respondents are required, indicate those that apply to them

Question 165

Designing interviews

Answer 165

Most interviews in an interview schedule, which is the little questions that the intensive cover use line there should be standard Adi to reduce the contaminating effect of interview bias. Typically, the interview will take make notes through this interview. All the interview recorded and analyse

Question 166

Designing interviews, part two

Answer 166

Infuse usually involve an interviewer and a single person or the group interviews may be appropriate, especially in the clinical setting.
In the case of a One 21 interview the interview. I should conduct the interview in a quiet room away from other people as this will increase the likelihood that the interview we will open up.
It is good practice to begin the interview with some neutral questions to make the interviewee feel relaxed and comfortable, and as well as Establishing report.
Of course, interviewees should be reminded on several occasions that their answers will be treated in the strictest confidence (ways of dealing with ethical issues page 179).
This really important interview includes topics that may be personal or sensitive

Question 167

Writing good questions

Answer 167

Clarity is essential when designing questionnaires, an interview. If responders so confused, by or misinterpret particular questions, this will have an impact on the quality of the information received. With this in mind, the following are common errors and designs that should be voided as possible.

Question 168

The first thing that should be avoided – overuse of jargon

Answer 168

Geographers two technical terms that are familiar to those with a specialised field or area. For instance, the following question includes jargon: do you agree maternal deprivation and early childhood, inevitably, least affectionate psychopathy in life?
Of course for psychologist specialist, you have chapter 3. You know what is mental deprivation person this would be confusing.
This also unnecessarily complex that the best questions are simple easily understood.

Question 169

The second thing that should be avoided and emotive language and leading questions

Answer 169

Sometimes research is attitude towards a particular topic is clear from the way in which the question is phrased like following examples (is not obvious as student fee should be abolished).
In the first examples like words and phrases, such as destroyed or emotive, and should be replaced with more neutral tits.
The exam with the leaning question as a guy to respond. That was a particular answer.
The fourth example is also leading as it assumed that the person being question has broken the speed limitat some point!

Question 170

Final thing to be avoided a double barrel quest double negatives

Answer 170

A double bar question contains two crisis one, the issue being that respondents may agree with one half the question or not the other.
There is multiple straightforward ways of asking this question check the page

Question 171

Correlation

Answer 171

Mathematical technique in which research investigates and association between two variables called co-variables

Question 172

Covariables

Answer 172

The variables investigated with the correlation, for example, height and weight.
They are not referred to as independent independent variables because of correlation investigates association between the variables whilst then trying to share a course and affect relationship.

Question 173

Positive correlation

Answer 173

As one cover increases so does the other. Free example, the number of people of room and noise to be posted correlated.

Question 174

Negative correlation

Answer 174

As one covert will increased the other decreases. For example, number of people and amount of pastel space tends to be negatively correlated.

Question 175

Zero correlation

Answer 175

When there is no relationship between the covariables. Dissociation between the number of people of Manchester, I was total ready for improve is likely to be zero.

Question 176

Coral oceans are placed on a scattergram

Answer 176

Vancouver was on X season and the other is in the white sees each point of dust cough is the Y position of each covariable

Question 177

The difference between correlation and experiments

Answer 177

In the experiment, the recess of controls them in the plates, the ivy in order to measure the effect of the DV. As a result of this deliberate change, one variable, it is possible to follow the IV cause any observe change in the DV.
In contrast, in a correlation, there is no such manipulation of one variable, and therefore it is not possible to establish cause an effect who one covert and another. Even if we found a strong positive correlation between caffeine and anxiety level, we cannot assume that caffeine was the cause of the anxiety

Question 178

Take the scattergram and examples on page 190

Answer 178

…

Question 179

Evaluation strength of correlations, part one

Answer 179

Correlations are used as preliminary tool for research. By setting the strength and direction of relationship, they provide a precise and quantifiable measure of how to verb was related.
This message just ideas for possible future research if variables are strongly related or demonstrate an interesting pattern. Correlations are often use as a starting point to assess possible patterns between the variables before research is committed to an experimental study.

Question 180

Correlations, part two

Answer 180

Asians are quick economical to carry out. There is no need for controlled environment, ation and variables required.
Data collected by others (such as statistics) use, which means correlations are less time-consuming, but experiments.

Question 181

Correlation limitations, part one

Answer 181

As a result of the lack of experimental manipulation control with the correlation, studies can tell us how it was related, but not why.
Correlations cannot demonstrate causes and affect between variables, and therefore we do not know which covariable is called the other to change for example.
For example, we cannot conclude the drinking caffeine causes anxiety. It may be that people who already are anxious more coughing as a result.
So establishing the direction of the effect is an issue.

Question 182

Correlation limitations, part two

Answer 182

It may also be the case that another untested variable is causing the relationship between the two co-variables which were interested in an intervening variable known as a variable problem.
Past people who have high pressure jobs, hence spend a lot of time and drink a lot of caffeine because they were long hours I need to run, remain alert and thereforethis unaccounted variable here is her job type which in effect is causing the relationship between the other two variables.

Question 183

Correlation part three

Answer 183

Largely because of the issues above correlations that can be occasionally misused or misinterpreted. Particularly in the media relationship between variables are sometimes presented as casual facts and reality they may not be.
For instance, and often critic statistic in the relationship between being raised by single parent and increased like could’ve been involved in quite.
This does not mean however, that single parent household cause crime all that children from such families will be relatively go to commit crime.
There are many intervening or third variables at work, such as the possibility that your parent family have experienced emotional distress when the parents were top of this might explain the link from single parents and crime.

Question 184

Qualitative data

Answer 184

Data that expressing words are non-numerical (quantitive data may converts numbers for the purpose of analysis).

Question 185

Quantitative data

Answer 185

Data that could be counted, usually given as numbers.

Question 186

Primary data

Answer 186

Information that has been obtained firsthand by researcher for the purposes of a research project. In psychology, such data is off together directly from participants as part of experiment, self-report, or observation.

Question 187

Secondary data

Answer 187

Information that has already been collected by someone else and so predict is the current research project. In psychology, such data might include the work of other psychologists or governments statistics.

Question 188

Metanalysis

Answer 188

The price of combining the finance from a number of studies on a particular topic.
The aim, Mr produce an oh fourth statistical conclusion (the effect size) based on the range of studies. That should not be confused with the review or number of studies that had discussed.

Question 189

Qualitative data

Answer 189

What is the date expressing words, what the numbers of statistics may form which description of thoughts and feelings or over to the car about the research observed.
That’s a transcript from the interview and straight from diary on notes recorded when the accounting session for Southport.
Causes of mass of data collection of those that are concerned with interrupt of language, example, or unstructured observation.

Question 190

Quantitive data

Answer 190

Quantitive data is expressing an American. Quantitive collection techniques, usually gather numerical data in the form of individual scores from particles such as the number of words, a person was able to record a memory experiment.
Davis is open to being statistically and can be easy, graphs, chart, etc.

Question 191

Which one is best?

Answer 191

Neither really, it depends upon the purpose and aims of the research. Also, there is significant overlap between the two: research is collective positive data as part of experiment may of an interview participants as a way of getting more insight into the experience of the investigation.
Similarly, there are number of phaser which equal assistive data converted to numerical data.

Question 192

Evaluation of qualitative data

Answer 192

 call the date of a research and much more richness of detail than quantitive data.
This is multiple in scope and gives the participants/respondent opportunity to fully report, their thought feelings and opinions on a different subject.
For this reason qualitative the data tends to have greater external validity and quantitive data; it provides a researcher with a more meaningful insight into the participants worldview.

Question 193

Evaluation of qualitative data, part two

Answer 193

That said, quality to date, is often difficult to analyse. It tends to lend itself to being some statistically so that the persons are comparison within and between data may be identify.
As a consequence, conclusion, often rely on the subjective interpretations of the research, and these may be subject to bias, particularly if the researcher halves preconceptions about what he says she is expecting the final.

Question 194

Evaluation on quantitive data

Answer 194

Essentially, the evaluations of cognitive data are the opposite of those above – quantitive data is relatively simple to analyse, therefore comparison between groups can be easily drawn. Also, data is numerical forms tend to be more objective, less open to bias. On the other hand, quantitive data is much more narrow and meaning and detail and quantitive data. It is failed to present real life.

Question 195

Evaluation – primary data

Answer 195

The main character primary data is that if it’s a job. Primary data is authentic data of obtained from the participants themselves for the purpose of a particular investigation.
There’s an interview for since can be designed in such a way that there is specifically targeted variation, which requires.
To produce primary data, however, requires time and effort on the part of the research. Conducting this, for instance, requires considerable planning, preparation, resources, and limitation, when compared with secondary data, which may be assessed within a mass of minutes.

Question 196

Secondary data

Answer 196

In contrast, the primary data above, second data, maybe inexpensive and easy access requirement more effort. When examining secondary data, the research may find the designation or exist and so there is no need to conduct primary to collection.
The flipside is that there may be substantial, variation the quality of separate data. Information appears to be volleyball and popon father investigation, maybe updated incomplete. Promising but on investigation may be our digital.
The content of the data may not quite much research or objectives. This may challenge validity of conclusions.

Question 197

Descriptive statistics

Answer 197

The use of graphs, tables and summary summary, statistics to identify, trans and analyse sets of data

Question 198

Measure of central tendency

Answer 198

The general term of any measure of the average value in the set of data

Question 199

Mean

Answer 199

Arithmetic average by adding up all the values undivided by the number of values.

Question 200

Median central value in a set of data which values are arranged from the lowest two heights

Answer 200

Mode the most frequently occurring value in a set of data

Question 201

Mean

Answer 201

The mean is the most sensitive of the right central tendency as it includes all the schools/buddies in the data set within the calculation. This means it is more representative of the data as a whole.
However, the moon is distorted by extreme values. If we replace 17 in the detail above with the number 98, the mean becomes 18.8 which does not really represent the data over.

Question 202

Median

Answer 202

The start of the median unlike the mean is the extreme school do not affect us at all so whether replaces 17, the data of the media remains the same. It is also easy to calculate once you have an order. However, this is less than the meat aslow on high ignored extreme values may be important.

Question 203

Mode

Answer 203

In some data, there may be two modes by model or low mode if all the schools are different.
Although the mode is very easy, easy easy to calculate as a very crude measure.
Not such a score of seven which is quite different from the main and the medium I’m not representative with the whole data said additionallywhen there are several months of a day, this is not a very useful piece of emotion.
Or some flashing categories. The mode is the only method you can use. For example, if you ask your parcel desert, the only words identify the most typical average value would be to select the murder group

Question 204

Measure of dispersion

Answer 204

Based on the spread of school. That is, how far goes very far from what. We shall focus on two of these the range standard deviation.

Question 205

The range is a simple calculation of the spread of school and his work out by taking the lowest value in the high value and usually adding one so 17-5+1 = 13
Adding one as a math muscle correlation allows the fact that rules scores are often rounded up or down when they were recording the research so they have to cancel the Mars.
Advantage of the range is that is easy to calculate

Answer 205

However, it only takes into account the two months extreme values, and this may represent of the data set as a whole princess, people in math class achieve the following schools, so the top score of the low, scoring this example, that may not give a fair conversation representation of the general distributionof schools.
The ranges influence by allies, the range also does not indicate where the most numbers are grouped around the mean, spread out where the standard deviation does show this aspect of dispersion

Question 206

Standard deviation

Answer 206

Calculate the standard the difference between each score and the mean is calculated. All the differences are then added up and divided by the number end of scores or (minus one is used).
This gives the variance the standard deviation, the square root root of the variance.

Question 207

Standard deviation, part two

Answer 207

The largest deviation, the greater expressional spread with Miss data. If we are talking about a particular condition with the experiment, and if you suggest that not all participants
More affected by the IV in the same way and the date is quite widespread. It may be that there is a few anomalous results.
A low deviation value of affective data is tightly cluster around the main which might imply that all participants responding from the way. The sound deviation is a much more precise much of dispersion range as it includes all in the final calculation.
However, for this reason, like the mean it can be distorted by a single extreme volume. Also comics values may not be refilled, unlike the range.

Question 208

Scattergram

Answer 208

Type of graph that represents the strength and direction of relation between cover variables in a correlational analysis.

Question 209

Barton, a type of graph, which the frequency of each represent
Represented by the height of the bars

Answer 209

Represent visually. The most graph is they use for discrete data what is the product to show that they were doing with separate positions?

Question 210

Histogram is a type of graph which are frequency, but like a bar after area of the bars, repel frequency and the X axis is continuous

Answer 210

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Question 211

Distributions normal distribution

Answer 211

If you measure 1000 variables, the people in your school, the three of these measurements should form about shaped car to photograph at the bottom left of the page called normal distribution symmetrical.
Distribution most people are located in the middle area of the car with and for all the experiments.
The main lead occupied the same midpoint of the cows of the curve never touch the horizontal never zero, as more schools out was possible.

Question 212

Normal distribution

Answer 212

Symmetrical spread of frequency data pattern. The mean medium and more at the highest peak.

Question 213

Skewed distribution distribution

Answer 213

A spread of frequency data that is not theatrical whether data classes to one end

Question 214

Positive skew

Answer 214

The type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left.

Question 215

Negative skew

Answer 215

A type of legal to distribution with the long towers on a negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right.

Question 216

In a positive skew …

Answer 216

The mode remains the highest point to the medium comes next, but the main is drugged across the tail.
Remember how extreme school affect the moon here the very high, scoring hand dates in the test have had the effect of putting them into the right right where the median mode of which include all the school when they calculated remain less affected by this

Question 217

In a negative skew…

Answer 217

The opposite are very easy test with producer distribution with the bark of the schools are concentration on the right resulting in the long top anomalous scored on the left the main port to the left this time due to the lower score who are in the minority with the mode dissecting the highest peak median in the middle

Question 218

Just run your eyes over the mathematical content

Answer 218

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Question 219

Peer review

Answer 219

The assessment of scientific works by others who are specialist in the same field to ensure that any reason intended for publication is a high quality

Question 220

Economy

Answer 220

The state of a country of reason production consumption of goods and services

Question 221

The role of peer review

Answer 221

 the aim of sciences to produce a body of knowledge based on the results of research. In addition to carrying out the research, what matters is how this knowledge is communicated within the scientific community, and the wide Republic.
In psychology, research findings are publicised to conferences, textbooks, but often via academic McDonald’s.
Before a piece of research past journal however, it must be subject to a preview. This improves all aspects of written investigation being scrutinised by Smol three experts, and this particular expert should conduct review and be unknown to the author or researcher.

Question 222

One aim of peer review

Answer 222

To allocate research funding. Independent peer evaluation also takes place to decide whether or not to award funding for a proposed research project. This may be coordinated by government run funding organisations that says the medical research council, who have invested interest in establishing which research projects are most worthwhile.

Question 223

Second aim of peer review

Answer 223

To take the quality and relevance of research. All elements of research are assessed for quality and accuracy: the formula of hypothesis, the methodology chosen, the statistical test used under conclusion drawn.

Question 224

Third aim of peer review

Answer 224

To suggest amendments or improvements. Review as most suggest minor revisions of the work and their by improve the report. In extreme, I can start this Monday, they may conclude that the inappropriate property should be withdrawn.

Question 225

Evaluation of peer review – what the benefits have been appear of review in establishing the validity and accuracy of the research, clear certain faces all the prices are open to criticism

Answer 225

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Question 226

Evaluational pair of view, anonymity

Answer 226

It is usual practice at the pay during the review, remains anonymous throughout the process as this is likely to produce a more honest appraisal. However, minority reviewers may use anonymity as a way of criticising rival research attitude they perceive having cost them in the pit!
This is made all the more likely by the fact that many wishes are in direct competition for research.
But some journals were prefer the open, reviewing where by the names of the reviewers are made public.

Question 227

Evaluation of peer review – publication bias

Answer 227

It is a natural tendency for editors of journals to want to publish significant headline, grabbing finding increase the credibility and circulation of the publication.
They also refer to published post to results.
This could mean that research doesn’t meet the criteria is ignored. Ultimately, this creates a impressional of the current state of psychology if general edits are being selective in what they published.

Question 228

Evaluation of peer review – burying groundbreaking research

Answer 228

May suppress opposition to mainstream theories, wishing to maintain the status, Q you are within particular scientific fields. Reviews tend to be especially critical of resource that contradicts their own view, and much more favourable to that which matches it.
Establish scientist, other ones who are most likely to be trans, review, particularly by prestigious and publishes. Other result, finding that chime, with current opinion are most likely to be part and an innovative resort that time does establish order.
Thhs review you may have the effect of slowing tolerated change with a particular scientific discipline.

Question 229

Implications of psychological research for the economy

Answer 229

One of the wide concerns of psychology, as well as science in general, is what the implications of research of the economy. By implications, we mean – how does what we learned from the finance of cyclical, research, influence, affect, benefit, or value or financial prosperity?
We will revisit to examples of disgust elsewhere in the book, the findings of the nation, financial well-being.

Question 230

Attachment research into the role of the father

Answer 230

Attachment research has come considerable way since John baldly started that a child can only ever form a secure and lasting bond with its mother. At the time. Childcare was seen as a mother just responsibility and has a loan what the father was a free to carry out his natural role as the provider for the family.
Maurice suggest that the father can equally fulfil the mother as well as the primary care giverand provide emotional support it is lots of households.
This means that modern parents are better to maximise the income affectively to the economy.
Crucially, this world is less valuable in the child of Lan. Psychological research on both parents are equally capable, providing the emotional support necessary. Just check the page for this page 203

Question 231

The development of treatment for mental disorders

Answer 231

Absence from work hospital about Leo. Recent government report reportable absence are caused by multiple mental health, such as depression, anxiety and stress cycle of research into the causes and treatment of mental disorders. Therefore has an important vote to pray to support healthy. We have to look at the mental Condition diagnosed quickly I’m going to treatment conditions are treated with the use of psychotherapy such as SSR eyes for depression and CD.
Anti-anxiety, drugs and stress condition referral can be also made by GP with psychotherapy systematic or CBT individual skills in self treatment using similar methods.
This means medic cases people with mental results are able to manage our condition. Affectively and return to work. The economic benefit of psychological research into disorder, such as depression is considerable.

Question 232

Statistical testing

Answer 232

Rides away of the tell me whether the hypothesis should be accepted or reject by using testing. We can find out whether the differences between fibrosis of significant or actually have a occurred by chance.

Question 233

Sign test

Answer 233

Statistical test used to analyse the difference in schools between what I said items example the the same participant test twice.
You should be no

Question 234

The concept of significance

Answer 234

Just because we found difference in the number of words spoken the two conditions, we do not yet know what psychologist referred to a significant difference.
The difference between Mary and Bean, no more than which could’ve occurred by chances by coincidence, or a fluke to find out your statistical testing

Question 235

The scientist

Answer 235

Call determine whether the difference we have found significant, we can use a simple school calculation called the scientist. There are statistical test in psychology, each of which of their own conditions of used to use the scientist:

Question 236

Scientist, part two, part, two

Answer 236

We need to look for a different well done in association.
We need to use a motor design.
We need data that is organised is known as normal. Data data is a nominal, but we can convert it for the purposes of this test.

Question 237

The concert of Paul probability

Answer 237

Put Bluetooth refers to the light. This is applied to understanding ofI’m obtain comes from a sample of apartments.
What we want to know is how lucky these findings if the hypothesis is true.
The hypothesis states there is no different association in the population. If we find a different association sample can we say this is truth the population

Question 238

The concert of probability, part two

Answer 238

The accepted level of probability in psychology is 0.05 so it’s 5%.
This is the level which resides the sides at the findings are meaningful and will reject the hypothesis.
In some circumstances need to be more confident of the findings were not due to charge and so employees strict and more significant level of one percent. This is the case when research involved human class, such as when drugs are being particular investigation is one off and there’s no possibility that you can be repeated in the future.
Even the recess is verified to significant differences within the data, they can never find statistical studies this was cycle such as this suggest this proves in the absence of proof or psychologist will be sufficient

Question 239

The critical value

Answer 239

When does the school test has been calculated the research is left with a number of staff to calculate the value. This needs to be compared with a critical value to decide whether the results soon form. The critical values for scientist I’ll give the table of critical values you need the following information to use the table:
One.the significance level (January, 5%).
2.the number of Parsons investigation (value of freedom)
3. the hypothesis is directional one test or nondirectional to test.
These pieces of information to locate the critical value data for the scientist, the calculate value has been all over critical value, but the result to be significant.

Question 240

Sign test worked example– step on

Answer 240

We need to come back to data to normal data about working out which part is use a higher count after the energy drink, which produced a lower word count.
We do this by subtracting the school for water from the school for speed up. If the answer is negative, we record a sign it the answer it’s supposed to record +10.

Question 241

Step 2 Sign test worked example

Answer 241

On the table, we add up plus in the morning. Total number of pluses is the number of participants who spoke more in five minutes after drinking speed up than they did after drinking water.
The total number of minuses is the number part of we spoke more words in the five minutes after drinking water than they did after drinking his food.

Question 242

Step three Sign test worked example

Answer 242

We take the less frequent (in this case, it is the total number of minuses) and call this S, therefore, S equals seven. This is all calculated value of S).
Note if that if there had been any participants who spoke the same number words in both conditio participant got pretty close. This will be normal and the total number and would be adjusted.

Question 243

Step 4Sign test worked example

Answer 243

No, we must compare our value with the critical value.
The hypothesis was participants based in more words in five minutes after drinking speed up than five minutes after.
The hypothesis is directional so we are looking for a one tail test.
We will use the 5% level of significance this time. The column equals 20 this determine the row .
The point where the column and meet give us the critical value. But the critical value for the scientist is 51N is 20 as 0.05 level of significance for a one test.
The calculated value of S must be equal to or less than the critical volume at the 0.05, level of

Question 244

Final card

Answer 244

We can see the full investigation, the calculated value of S (seven) more than the critical value of S (five) this can be expressed as seven is bigger than five. Therefore, the difference is not significant at 0.05 level.
So even though there were a difference in the main number of words spoken between the two conditions, it was not a statistically significant different on this occasion.
So it’s back to the drawing board for possible ways to make 1 million. Ha ha ha