Approaches Flashcards
What is Introspection
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the bind, by breaking up conscious awareness, into basic structures , of thoughts ,images and sensations .
What is Psychology
the scientific study of the mind behaviour andexperience .
meaning of science
a means acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation . THe aim is to discover general laws .
Wundt’s lab
-18719 Wilhelm Wundt opened the first ever lab dedicated entirely to psychological enquiry in a little town called LEIPZIG , IN Germany .
-Wundt’s work is significant because it marked the beginning, of scientific psychology , separating it from its broader philosophical roots.
What was Wundt’s lab
Wundt’s aim was to try analyse the nature, of human consciousness and thus represented , the first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions . His pioneering method became known as introspection .
Wundt’s main objectives standardised procedures objectives was what ?
One of Wundt’s main objectives was to try and develop theories , about mental processes ,such as language and perception . He and his co-worker , recorded their experiences of various stimuli, they were presented with such as different object or sounds.
-They would divide their observations into three categories , thoughts images and sensations for instance , participants , might be a ticking metronome and they would report their thoughts images and sensations .
what is structuralism ?
-isolating , the structure , of consciousness in this way is called structuralism . The stimuli , that WUNDT and his co-workers experienced were always presented in the same order and the same instructions were issued to all participants.
what happened in the the 17th -19th century
psychology is a branch of the broader discipline of philosophy . If psychology has a definition during this time it is as experimental philosophy .
1879- Wilhelm Wundt
Opens the first experimental psychology , lab in Germany and psychology lab in Germany , and psychology emerges as a distinct discipline in its own right.
1990s - Sigmund freud
Sigmund Freud emphasises the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour (the psychodynamic approach ) .
-He also develops this person - centred therapy , psychoanalysis , and shows that physical problems can be explained in terms of conflicts within the mind .
1913 - John B Watson
writes psychology , as the behaviourists views it and later with B.F skinner , establishes, the behaviourist approach , the psychodynamic and behaviourists approaches dominate psychology for the first half of the 20th century .
1950s carl rogers and Abraham Maslow, develop the humanist approach
the so called third force in psychology rejecting , the behaviourists and the psychodynamic view is that human behaviourist determined by outside factors . Humanistic psychologists emphasise the importance of self-determination and free will .
1950s - the introduction of the digital computer …
the introduction of the digital computer gives psychologists a metaphor ,for the operations of the human mind. The cognitive approach reintroduces the study of mental processes to psychology but in a much more scientific way that Wundt’s earlier investigations ;.
1960s Albert Bandura-proposes the social learning theory .
This approach draws attention to the role of cognitive factors in learning, providing bridge between the newly established cognitive approach and traditional behaviourism .
1980s onwards approach
the biological begins to establish , itself as the dominant scientific perspective in psychology .
-This is due to advances , in technology that have increased understanding of the brain and biological processes .
eve of the21st century
towards the end of the last century ,cognitive neuroscience, emerges as a distinct discipline bringing together the cognitive and biological approaches .
-Cognitive neurosciences investigates how bioligcal structures influence mental states .
What is wundts lab ?
-In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt opened the first ever lab dedicated entirely to psychological enquiry in a little town called Lepizig in Germany .
-Wundt’s work is significant because it marked the beginning of of scientific psychology, separating it from its broader philosophical roots .
What was Wundt’s aim ?
Wundt’s’ aim was to try to analyse the entire of human consciousness and this , represented the first systematic atempt to study the mind under controlled conditions . His pioneering method became known as introspection .
Wundts standardised procedures
One of wundts main objectives was to try and develop theories about mental processes , such as language perception .
He and his coworkers recorded their experiences of various stimuli they were presented with such as different objects or sound .
- they would divide their observations into three categories , thoughts images and sensation s, for instance Patti pants might be given a ticking metronome and they would report their thoughts images and sensations zv
Strucuralism
Isolating the structure of consciousness in this way is
Called structuralism . The stimuli that Wundt and his co-workers experienced were always presented in the same order and the same instructions weren’t issued to all participants.
The emergence of psychology as a science - 1900s behaviourists
By the beginning of the 20th century , the value of introspection was questioned by many , most notably the behaviourists John b Watson .
The problem was that introspection produced subjective data rather than objective data so that it was very difficult tor establish general
Laws
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1900S behaviouralists part 2
Watson and later B.F slimmed proposed that a truly scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed objectively and measured .
- for this reason , behaviourists focused on behaviours that they NBC could see carefully controlled experiments .
- the behaviourists approach would go on to dominate scientific psychology for the next rl 50ueads .
Evlauation of Wundts work strength
One strength of Wundts work is that some of his
Methods were systematic and well controlled (scientific) all introspections were recorded in the controlled enviroment of the lab , ensuring that possible extraneous variables were not a factor .
-As described on the left ,’procedures and instructions , were carefully standardised so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way .
This suggests that Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology as the behaviourists approach .
Evlauation of Wundts work strength
One strength of Wundts work is that some of his
Methods were systematic and well controlled (scientific) all introspections were recorded in the controlled enviroment of the lab , ensuring that possible extraneous variables were not a factor .
-As described on the left ,’procedures and instructions , were carefully standardised so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way .
This suggests that Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology as the behaviourists approach .
Evaluation - subjective data
One limitation is that other aspects of Wundt’s research would be considered unscientific today . Wundt relied on participant self-reporting their mental processes . Such data is sucker y r . Also participant may have hidden some of their thoughts . It is difficult to establish meaningful law or behaviours from such data . And general ads are useful tomm m predict future behaviour one of the aims in six he .
- this suggests that some or Wundts warlt effort to study the mind flawed and would not meet the criteria for scientific enquiry .
Evaluation - subjective data
One limitation is that other aspects of Wundt’s research would be considered unscientific today . Wundt relied on participant self-reporting their mental processes . Such data is sucker y r . Also participant may have hidden some of their thoughts . It is difficult to establish meaningful law or behaviours from such data . And general ads are useful tomm m predict future behaviour one of the aims in six he .
- this suggests that some or Wundts warlt effort to study the mind flawed and would not meet the criteria for scientific enquiry .
Evaluation - modern psychology
One strenfth is that research on modern psychology can claim to be scientific . Psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences - to describe understand , predict and contorl behaviour .
-the learning approaches cognitive approach and biological approach all rely on the use of scientific methods , for example , lab sgudies to investigate theories in a controlled and unbiased way .
This suggests that throughout the 20th century and beyond , psychoglt has established itself as a scientific discipline .
Evaluation subjective data
One limitation with psychology is that not all approaches use objective methods .
The humanist approach rejects the scientific approach , preferring to focus on idk iodine wzpwricmes and subjective experience . The psychodynamic approach makes use of the case study method with does not use reodebtatice samples .
evaluation - modern psychology
one strength is that research in modern psychology can claim , to be scientific .
-psychology , has the same aims as the natural sciences - to describe , understand predict and control behaviour .
-The learning approaches, cognitive approach and biological, aproach , all rely on he use of scientific methods , for example , lab sudies , to investiage thoeries ina controlled nd unbiased wya .
-This suggets , that throughout the 20 th cenutry and beyond , psycholgye stablished istefl s a scientific discipline .
evaluation - subjective data
one limitiation , with psycpsychologyholgy is that not all approaches , use objective methods . Humanistic approach rejets the scientific pporach , preferring to foucs on individual experiences , and usbjective experiences .
-The psychodyamic approch mke use of the case study method which does not use representative samples .
-Finally m the subject of study - human beings 0 are active participants in research , responding for example to demand characteristics . Therefore a scientific approach ot the study of human thought and experience may not always a desribale or possible .
behaviourist approach
a way of explining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning .
what is classical conditioning
learning by association , occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an uncodnitoned (unlearned) stimulus and UCS and a new neutral stimulus ) .
-The netural stimulus eventually pordproducesuces the same -response that was first prouduproducedced by the unconditioned (unlearned stimulus alone ).
operant conditioning
a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and mintinmaintaineded by its cosnequnces . POssible consequences of behavbehavioriour include reinforcemen t (positive or negative 0 nd punishment.
reinforcement
a consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated can be positive or negative .
assumptions made by the behaviourist approach
-It is only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured . It is not concerned with investigating , mental processes , of the mind because these were seen as irrelevant .
assumptions (2)
early behaviourists such as John B Watson , rejected introspection as it involved too many concepts that were vague and difficult to measure . As a result , behaviourists , tried to maintain more control and objectify within their research and relied on lab studies as the best way to achieve this .
what do behaviourists believe ?
behaviourists believe , that all behaviour is learned . They describe a a baby’s mind as a blank slate and this is written on by experience .
-Following , Darwin’s behaviourists suggested that the basic process that govern learning are the same in all species .
-This means , that in behaviourists research , animals replace humans as experimental , subjects .
-behaviourists identified two forms of learning
-CLASSICAL
OPERANT CONDITIONING .
Explain classical conditioning - Pavlov’s research
classical conditioning is learning through association ad was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov .
-Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to SALIVATE , to the sound of a bell .
-if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time they were given food . Gradually , Pavlov’s dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell (a stimulus ) with the food (another stimulus ) and would produce salivation in response every time they heard a sound .
Pavlov’s research conclusion
Thus , Pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus , in this case a bell , can come to elicit , a new learned response (conditioned response ) through association .
Operant conditioning - Skinner’s research
B.F skinner suggested that learning is an active process , whereby humans and animals operate on their environment . In operant conditioning , behaviour is shaped by consequences .
Operant conditioning - what is positive reinforcement ?
Positive reinforcement is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed , for example , praise from a teacher , for answering a question correctly in class .
What is negative reinforcement - operant conditioning ?
occurs when an animal (or human ) avoids something unpleasant . The outcome is a positive experience . For example , when a student hands in an essay as not to be told off , the avoidance of something unpleasant is the negative reinforcement . Similarly , a rat , may learn through negative reinforcement that pressing a lever leads to avoidance of an electric shock .
what is operant conditioning - punishment
is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour , for example , being shouted at by the teacher for talking during a lesson . (Finding a way to avoid that would be negative reinforcement )
-Positive and negative reinforcement , increases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated . Punishment decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated .
EVALUATION - well controlled research
-one strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is based on well-controlled research .
-Behaviourists focused on the measurement , of observable behaviour within , highly controlled , lab settings .
-by breaking down , behaviour into basic stimulus - response units . all other possible extraneous variables were removed , allowing cause and effect relationships ot be established .
-For instance , Skinner , was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement , influenced an animal’s behaviour .
-This suggests that behaviourists experiments have scientific credibility .
Counterpoint - for well controlled research
however , the problem, with this is that behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process , By reducing behaviour to such components , behaviourists may have ignored an important influence on learning - that of human thought , other approach , such as social learning theory , and the cognitive approach , have drawn attention to the mental processes involved in learning , . This suggests that learning is more complex , than observable , behaviour alone , and the private mental processes are also essential .
EVALUATION - real world application - another strength for the behaviourist approach
-Another strength of the behaviourists approach is that the principles , of conditioning , have been applied to real world behaviours and problems .
-For example, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems , that have been used successfully in institutions , such as prisons and psychiatric wads . These work by rewarding appropriatte behaviour wit tokens that can be exchanged for prvileges .
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EVALUATION - real world application - another strength for the behaviourist approach (2)
FOR EXAMPLE , HOW Classical conditioning has been applied to the treatment of phobias . This increases the value of the behaviourists approach because it has widespread application .
Evaluation - environmental determinism
one limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it see all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences . Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history . When something happens we may think I made the decision to do that but according to skinner our past conditioning history determined the outcome . This ignores any possible influence that free will , may have on behaviour ( skinner himself also said that free will is an illusion ) ,
Evaluation - environmental determinism - what is the effect of this ?
This is an extreme position , and ignores the influence of conscious decision making processes , on behaviour , (as suggested in the cognitive approach )
EVALUATION EXTRA - ETHICAL ISSUES
-although procedures such as the skinner box allowed behaviourists to maintain a high degree of control over their experimental subjects , they may have questioned the ethics in conducting such investigations . Animals were housed in harsh cramped conditions and deliberately kept below their natural weight so they were always hungry .
What is social learning theory ?
A way o explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement , combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors .
imitation
copying the behaviour of others
identification
a desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because the person , group possesses certain desirable characteristics .
what is modelling ?
from an observer’s perspective , modelling is imitating , the behaviour , of a role model . From the role model’s perspective modelling is the precise , demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
vicarious reinforcement
reinforcement which is not directly experienced , but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour . this is a key factor in imitation ..
Mediational processes
cognitive factors (thinking ) that influence learning come between stimulus and response
assumptions about social learning theory
albert bandura - with the behaviourists that behaviour is learned from the experience of slt , proposed a different way in which people learn - through observation and imitation of others . (social involving others . )
-Slt suggested that learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning but also indirectly .
key thing about vicarious reinforcement
the learner observes a behaviour but most importantly also observes the consequences of a behaviour .
the role of mediational processes
slt is often described as the bridge between behaviourists is learning theory and the cognitive approach because it focuses on how mental cognitive factors ae involved in learning , These mental factors mediate in the learning processes to determine whether a new resposne is acquired . Four menal or mediational processes in learning were identified by Bandura .
role of mediational processes stages
attention - the extent to which we notice certain behaviours .
retention how well the behaviour is remembered .
-motor reproduction 0 the ability of the observer to perform a certain behaviour .
-motivation - the will to perform the behaviour which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished .
stages of the role of mediational processes explained
the first of these relate to the learning , of behaviour and the last two the performance of the behaviour . Unlike traditional behaviourism , the learning and performance of behaviour need not occur together . Observed behaviours may be stored by the observer , and reproduced at a later time .
what is identification ?
people especially children are more likely to imitate people they identify with , a process called identification .
-The person they identify with , with a process called identification ,. The process is called identification . The person they identify , with is called a role model and the process is called identification . The person they identify with is called a role model and the process of imitating a orle is called modelling /
how does a person become a role model
a person becomes a role model , if they are seen to possess similar characteristics , to the observer , and / or are attractive and have high status . Role models may not necessarily be physically present in the environment and this has important implications for the influence of the media on behaviour .
evaluation - cognitive factors
one strength of the social learning theory approach is that it recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning .
-Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer an adequate amount of learning on this own . Humans and animals can store information about the behaviours of other ,and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions as Bandura observed .
what did bandura observe - whatever he observed suggests that SLT provides a comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes .
learning would be exceedingly laborious not to mention hazardous , if people had to rely soley on the effects of their own actions , to inform them what they do . From observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed , and on later occasions this coded information serves a as guide to action .
Counterpoint to Bandura - this concludes the fact that biological influences on social learning were under emphasised in slt .
despite this , slt has been criticised for making too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning . Although Bandura claimed natural biological differences influenced learning potential , he thought that learning itself was determined by the environment .
-However , recent research suggests that observational learning of the kind bandura was talking about , may be the result of MIRROR NEURONS , in the brain , which allow us to empathise with and imitate other people .
evaluation - contrived lab studies
one limitation of social learning theory is that the evidence on which it is based was gathered through lab studies .
-Many of bandura’s ideas were developed through observation of young childrn;s behaviour in the lab .
-Lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics .
what has been suggested by contrived lab studies
it has been suggested in relation to the bobo doll research , that because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it , the children were simply behaving in the way thought was expected of the, .
-This suggests , that the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life .
evaluation - real world application
another strength is that slt principles have been applied of a range of real world behaviours .
-slt has had the advantage of being bale to explain a lot of cultural differences such as modelling imitation and thru media , and this can account for how children learn from others around them . This can then be used to explain how social/cultural norms , are transmitted through particular societies .
-This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours such a show children come to understand their gender roles this increases the value of the approach as it can account for real world behaviour .
evaluation extra - reciprocal determinism
bandura emphasised , reciprocal determinism , in the sense that we are not merely influenced by our external environment , but we also exert an influence upon it , through the behaviours we choose to perform . This element of choice suggests that there is some free will in the way we behave contrasting the behaviourist approach which denies the possibility of free will .
what is cognitive approach ?
the term cognitive approach has come to mean mental processes so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (thoughts ) affect our behaviour .
what is the internal mental processes
private operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response .
What is a schema ?
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing . They are developed from experience .
What is inference ?
the process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis observed behaviour ..
what is cognitive neuroscience ?
the scientific study of those biological structures that underpin cognitive processes .
what are the assumptions of the cognitive approach ?
it is in direct contrast to the behaviourist approach , the cognitive approach argues that internal mental processes , can and should be studied scientifically . As a result , the cognitive approach has investigated those areas of human behaviour that were neglected by behaviourists such as memory perception and thinking .
cognitive approach - why is it important that these processes are , private ?
therefore they cannot be observed , so cognitive psychology’s study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on , inside people’s mind on the basis of their behaviour .
what is the role of the schema part one
-cognitive processing can be affected by a person’s beliefs or expectations which are referred to as schema .
-Schemas, are packages , of ideas and information and developed through experience ,acting as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system .
