Research Methods Flashcards
What is an independent groups design?
2 groups of participants do separate conditions
What is a repeated measures designs?
There is 1 group of participants who repeat the experiment in 2 different conditions
Explain a matched pairs design.
People are matched based on a key variable and then put into separate groups
Explain a strength of an independent groups design.
There is no order effects.
So we can be sure that the IV is truely what is effected the DV.
Name the weaknesses of independent groups.
Participant variables.
2 times the amount of people needed.
Name one strength of a repeated measures design.
No participant variables
What are the weaknesses of a repeated measures design?
Order effects.
Demand characteristics.
How can you deal with order effects?
Counterbalancing
What are the strengths of a matched pairs design?
There is no order effects.
Less likely participant variables
What are the weaknesses of a matched pairs design?
Time consuming.
Expensive.
How can you deal with participant variables?
Use a matched pairs design.
Random allocation.
How can you deal with researcher bias?
Random allocation
What is a quasi experiment?
When the IV is based on an existing difference e.g. age or gender
What are the strengths of a quasi experiment?
Often done under controlled conditions.
Share same strengths as a lab study.
Give a weakness of a quasi experiment.
Cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions so there may be confounding variables
What is a confounding variable?
When an EV isn’t controlled and it effects the results
What is a lab experiment?
When the researcher controls the IV in a highly controlled environment
What are the strengths of a lab study?
High control over EVs.
Easier to replicate the study, which makes findings more valid.
Explain one weakness of a lab study.
Use artificial tasks.
Difficult to generalise results to real world.
Low external validity.
What is a field experiment?
When the IV is manipulated in a more natural setting
Explain one strength of field experiments.
Higher mundane realism.
Environment is more natural so behaviour is more authentic.
Higher external validity.
What are the weaknesses of a field experiment?
Less control over EVs.
Ethical issues (often consent).
What is a natural experiment?
When the researcher measures the effects of a pre-existing variable that would have occurred anyway.
What is a strength of natural experiments?
High external validity
Explain one weakness of natural experiments.
Participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions.
We are less sure whether it was the IV that affected the DV.
What are demand characteristics?
When participants pick up cues from the researcher which allow them to figure out what is being investigated and therefore they may change their behaviour
What does an alternative hypothesis predict?
There will be a difference
What is a null hypothesis?
It states that there will be no difference between variables
What is the difference between a directional and non-directional hypothesis?
A directional hypothesis states a specific difference whilst a non-directional hypothesis states that there will be a difference but not specifically what
Define overt observation.
Participants are watched with their knowledge and consent given.
What is one advantage of overt observation?
Few ethical issues as participants all gave informed consent.
Explain one disadvantage of overt observation.
Participants may not behave naturally as they know they are being watched.
Demand characteristics.
Lower validity.
Define covert observation.
Participants observed in a natural setting without their knowledge or consent.
What is one advantage of covert observation?
Will observe natural genuine behaviour.
High validity.
What is one weakness of covert observation?
Ethical issues as no informed consent.
What is participants observation?
Observer becomes a member of the group.
Explain an advantage of participant observation.
Observer has increased insight into behaviour as they gain context.
Increased validity.
Explain one weakness of participant observation.
Observer may begin to identify too strongly with participants.
Opinions lose objectivity and become biased.
What is non participant observation?
Observer watches from outside the group.
What is one strength of non participant observation?
Observer maintains an objective psychological distance.
What is one disadvantage of non participant observation?
May lose valuable insight as too far removed from the group.
What is controlled observation?
Observation done in a structured environment and variables are controlled.
Explain one strength of controlled observation.
Controlled EVs.
Easier to replicate.
What is one weakness of controlled observation?
Behaviour is harder to generalise to real life.
What is naturalistic observation?
Done in a natural setting where behaviour would normally occur.
Explain one strength of naturalistic observation.
Can generalise the finding to everyday life.
High external validity.
What is one weakness of naturalistic observation.
Lack of control over EVs.
Makes it difficult to replicate findings.
What are behavioural categories?
Psychologist decides which specific behaviour to observe and then operationalises them (precisely describe)
How to draw a record sheet?
Table with checklist at the top of behavioural categories.
Space to record behaviour with a tally chart.
Define inter observer reliability.
The extent to which two or more observers observe and record behaviour in the same way.
How to achieve inter observer reliability.
Use same behavioural categories.
Compare data (discuss differences).
Analyse data collected.
What are the two types of sampling in observation?
Event sampling.
Time sampling.
What is event sampling?
A target behaviour or event is first established and then the researcher records every time this event occurs.
What is time sampling?
Researcher records behaviour every fixed time frame e.g. what they’re doing every 30 seconds.
Describe the abstract section of report.
First section of a report.
Summary of key points of research - 150-200 words.
Contains summary of all sections - aims, methods, results and conclusions.
What is the introduction in a research report?
Identifying a gap in the research.
Establishing aim and hypothesis.
What does the method section of a report consist of?
Detail so someone could replicate study.
Design, sample, materials, procedure and ethics.
What does the results section of a report consist of?
Presenting reassures in tables and graphs.
Including descriptive statistics and inferential testing.
What does the discussion section of a report consist of?
Results interpreted by comparing with initial hypotheses, how they compare to other research and implications for future research.
How would you give credit to authors in a report?
Alphabetical order.
Books - surname, initial (year), book title in italics, place of publication, publishers.
What is the purpose of the referencing section of a report?
Give credit to other researchers.
What are the 4 key factors which make psychology a science?
Objectivity and the empirical method.
Replicability and falsifiability.
Theory construction and hypothesis testing.
Paradigm and paradigm shift.
Define objectivity.
Researchers must not let their personal opinions interfere with the data.
What is empirical methods?
The idea that knowledge is gained from direct experiences in an objective, systematic and controlled manner to produce quantitive data.
Define replicability.
When research is repeated and consistent results are found.
Define falsifiability.
The idea that a research hypothesis could be proved wrong.
Allows research to keep advancing.
What is theory construction?
To construct, evidence that supports the idea must be collected first.
An experiment then needs to be made to examine their ideas.
What must a hypothesis be?
Objective and measurable.
Define paradigm.
A set of shared assumptions and ideas.
What is a paradigm shift?
A psychological revolution leading to a new widely accepted dominant paradigm.
Define reliability.
Consistency.
What is validity?
Accuracy.
Define internal validity.
If the researcher measures what they intended to measure.
Define external validity.
Whether results can be generalised to outside of the sample (population validity) or situation (ecological validity).
How can validity be assessed?
Face validity.
Concurrent validity.
Define face validity.
Does the test appear to measure what it says it measures.
What is concurrent validity?
The performance of the tool is compared to an already established, similar tool.
How can you assess reliability?
Inter observer reliability.
Test - retest reliability.
Define inter observer reliability.
Two or more observers results are correlated and have a score of +0.8 or higher.
Explain test-retest reliability.
The same people repeat a measure on different occasions and produce a +0.8 correlation between the results.
How can you improve reliability in questionnaires?
Changing open to closed questions
How can reliability in experiments be increased?
Increase control over extraneous variables.
How can reliability during observations be improved?
Operationalise the behavioural categories and ensure there is no possible overlap.
How can reliability be improved across interviews?
Same interviewer.
Or training for all to use same methods.
How can you improve validity in experiments?
Use control groups.
Standardised instructions.
Double bind procedure - have someone who doesn’t know the aim conduct experiment.
How can you improve validity in questionnaires?
Lie scales - 2 questions which ask the same thing in a different way.
How can validity of observations be improved?
Covert observations.
What should be included in a debrief?
Revealing all aims, offering after support and answering questions.
Define ethical issues.
What researchers need to consider throughout research.
Define ethical guidelines.
Code of ethics which need to be considered when undertaking psychological research.
Define case study.
In depth, longitudinal study of one individual or a small group of people.
What are the 3 main features of a case study?
Happens over along period of time so gain context to behaviour.
Interviews of individual and people close to them.
Qualitative information provides more detail.
Name 2 evaluations of case studies.
Difficult to generalise to others.
In depth analysis.
Explain why there may be a problem with generalising case studies.
In depth study of usually a unique group.
May apply to people in similar situations but difficult to generalise outside of niche.
Explain why in depth analysis is a strength of case studies.
Result in a large amount of detailed qualitative data.
Explain context or cause of behaviour.
What are interviews?
Face to face asking questions.
What are the 3 types of interview?
Structured.
Semi - structured.
Unstructured.
What is a structured interview?
Questions prepared in advance.
What is a semi structured interview?
Some questions prepared in advance.
Unplanned questions asked to obtain more detail.
Explain an unstructured interview.
No questions prepared in advance.
Go with flow of conversation.
Explain one weakness of an interview.
Difficult to analyse.
Use open questions, provide detailed qualitative data.
Therefore cannot put into a graph, requires things such as content analysis which is more time consuming.
Explain one strength of interviews - particularly structured.
High replicability.
Standardised questions.
Therefore more scientific method.
What are questionnaires?
Set of written questions.
Usually consists of more closed questions.
Name 3 evaluations of questionnaires.
Tend to use closed questions.
Easy and quick.
Social desirability bias.
Explain why closed questions is an advantage of questionnaires.
Produce quantitive data.
Results easier to analyse.
Explain why desirability bias is an issue with questionnaires.
Participants may lie to seem what they view to be more positive - especially as not face to face.
Therefore reduce validity of results.
