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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What does replicability mean

A

repeating research under identical conditions to check validity
Same or similar results must be obtained to be reliable

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2
Q

What does objectivity mean

A

Observations made through sensory experience, independent of beliefs, opinions and biased viewpoint of researchers
-to lesson possibility of unconscious bias and reduce subjectivity
-peer reviews can act asana gate keeper to stop this and replication can help check validity

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3
Q

What is falsifiability

A

-A scientific theory has to be empirically testable to see if its false
- one example of falsification is enough to render a theory untrue

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4
Q

How can falsifiability be determined

A

Replication

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5
Q

7 main scientific factors of a method to be scientific

A

-replicable
-objective
-controlled variable
-reliable
-cause and effect can be established
-quantitative data
-valid
-standardised
-falsifiable

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6
Q

What does reliability mean

A

The extent to which a test or measurement produces consistent results

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7
Q

What does validity mean

A

The extent to which results accurately measure what they are supposed to Meade

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8
Q

What is qualitative data

A

Expressed in words rather than numbers and may take the form of written description of thoughts feeling and opinions of participants

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9
Q

Advantages of qualitative data

A

-More richness of detail in a much broader scope
-Participant has more license to develop their thought feeling and opinions on a given subject so greater external validity
-researcher has more meaningful; insight into participants work view

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10
Q

Disadvantages to qualitative data

A

-difficult to analyse
-hard to be summarised statistically
-patterns and comparisons within data hard to identify
-concussion often rely on subjective interpretations of the researcher which may be subject to bias

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11
Q

What is quantitative data

A

Data represented numerical data and collection technique often gather numerical data in the form of individual scores

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12
Q

Quantitative data advantages

A

-easier to analyse
-patterns and comparisons within data easily drawn
-more objective and less open to bias
-analysed statistically
-easily converted into graphs and charts etc

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13
Q

Quantitative data disadvantage

A

-narrower scope with less meaning
-participant less chance to develop thoughts feelings and opinions so less external validity
-researcher doesn’t gain meaningful insight and may fail to represent a real life

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14
Q

Which is better:qualitative or quantitative data

A

-depends on purpose and aims of research
-researchers collecting quantitative data may also interview participants
-qualitative can sometimes be converted to numerical data

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15
Q

What is primary data

A

Original data has been collected specifically for the purpose of the investigation by the researcher ans arrives first hand from participants themselves

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16
Q

What can primary data also be referred to as

A

Field research

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17
Q

How is primary data gathered

A

Conducting and experiment, questionnaire, interview or observations

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18
Q

Primary data advantages

A

-authentic data obtained from participants for the purpose of the particular investigation so specifically targets info required

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19
Q

primary data disadvantages

A

-requires time and effort
-can be expensive

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20
Q

What is secondary data

A

Data collected by singing other than the person who is conducting that research and already exists before starting research

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21
Q

What is secondary data often. Referred to as

A

Desk research

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22
Q

Where might secondary data be located

A

Journal articles, books, website, statistical information held by the government, population records

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23
Q

What is meta analysis

A

Research method that uses secondary data and refers to process in which the data from a large number of studies involving the same research questions and methods are combines

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24
Q

Positive of meta analysis

A

Allows to view data with much more confidence and results can be generalised across much larger populations

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25
Q

Negative of meta analysis

A

Maybe prone to bias as researcher may not select all relevant studies choosing to leave out those with non significant results

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26
Q

Secondary advantages

A

-may be inexpensive, easily accessed and minimal effort

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27
Q

Secondary disadvantages

A

-may be substantial variation in quality and accuracy of secondary data
-data may be out dated or incomplete
-data may not quite match the researchers needs/objective
-dont know how scientific/Ethical

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28
Q

What are the 6 research methods

A

-experiments
-observation
-self report
-correlation
-content analysis
-case studies

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29
Q

What is an aim

A

General statement of what the researcher intends to investigate/ the purpose of study as we have to start with an initial idea then narrow the focus of our research to produce an aim

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30
Q

What do you start and exam answer with if asked to write an aim

A

To investigate

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31
Q

What is a hypothesis

A

Clear precise testable state,ent that states the relationship between the variable to be investigated and is written in the present or future tense

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32
Q

What are the 4 different types of hypotheses

A

-Alternative/experimental
-directional
-non directional
-null

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33
Q

What is a directional (one tailed) hypothesis

A

Clear sort of difference anticipated between two conditions or two groups of people and includ words eg more less higher lower faster

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34
Q

What is a non directional (two tailed ) hypothesis

A

Simply states there will be a difference between conditions or groups of people but the nature of the diffference is not specified

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35
Q

What is a null hypothesis

A

States there will be no significant difference between the two groups

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36
Q

What is and alternative hypothesis

A

When experiment is done results analysed to decide if the alternative hypothesis should be accepted or the null one

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37
Q

Which type of hypothesis should be used ?

A

Directional tend to be used when the findings of previous research studies suggest a particular outcome
Non directional when there’s no previous research of findings of earlier studies are contradictory

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38
Q

Experiments
Why are variables used

A

Determine if changes in on thing results in changes to another

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39
Q

Experiments
What is an independent variable

A

Aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researchers or changes naturally

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40
Q

Experiments
What is a dependent variable

A

Variable that measured by the researcher and recorded

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41
Q

What three levels of measurement can quantitative data be put into

A

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval

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42
Q

What is nominal data

A

Data represented in the form of categories eg males and females, school dinner or packed lunch

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43
Q

What id ordinal data

A

Data can be put in order eg scale of 1-10 and doesn’t have equal intervals between each unit

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44
Q

Limitations of ordinal data

A

Based on subjective option not objective so lacks precision
As the data is ‘unsafe, raw scores are converted into ranks when doing statistical testing

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45
Q

What is interval data

A

Based on a numerical scale that includes units of equal, precisely defined size eg time temp and weight
Most precise and sophisticated form of data

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46
Q

For nominal level of measurement which is the measure of central tendency

A

Mode

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47
Q

For ordinal level of measurement which is the measure of central tendency

A

Median

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48
Q

For interval level of measurement which is the measure of central tendency

A

Mean

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49
Q

For nominal level of measurement which is the measure of dispersion

A

Range and standard deviation cannot be calculated so n/a

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50
Q

For ordinal level of measurement which is the measure of dispersion

A

Range

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51
Q

For interval level of measurement which is the measure of dispersion

A

Standard deviation

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52
Q

Why isn’t it appropriate to use the mean or standard deviation for ordinal data

A

Intervals between units of measurement are not equal of size

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53
Q

Experimental method
What are conditions

A

Different testing groups which reflect what the IV is

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54
Q

Experimental method
What is operationalisation of variables

A

Clearly defining variables into measurable factors

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55
Q

Experimental method
Why is operationalisation of factors necessary

A

Many things psychologists are interested in are difficult to define therefore the psychologist needs to ensure the variables being investigated are clear and measurable

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56
Q

Experimental method
When are variables operationalised

A

When writing the hypothesis

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57
Q

Experimental method why do we need to control variables

A

Be sure that the IV has caused the change in the DV so any other variable that might potentially interfere should be controlled or removed

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58
Q

Experimental method
What are additional unwanted variables then need to be controlled called

A

Extraneous variables

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59
Q

Experimental method
How do you limit the affect of extrenuous variables

A

Need to be identified before the study and minimised

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60
Q

Experimental method
what are confounding variables

A

Extrenuous variables that have systematically changed the IV

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61
Q

Experimental method
What are demand characteristics

A

Cues picked up by the participants from the researcher or research situation about what’s going on and possible reveal the purpose of the investigation which may lead to a change in behaviour

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62
Q

Experimental method
Types of demand characteristics

A

Please you effect
Screw you effect

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63
Q

Experimental method
Impact of demand characteristics

A

Behaviour no longer natural

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64
Q

Experimental method
What are investigator effects

A

Effect of investigator behaviour (conscious or unconscious) that impact on research outcome

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65
Q

Experimental method
Example of investigator effect

A

Design of study , selection of participants, interactions with participants eg smiling or words said

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66
Q

Experimental method
What’s randomisation

A

Use of chance wherever possible to control for the effects of biased when deigning materials and allocating participants

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67
Q

Experimental method
What’s standardisation

A

All participants should be subject to the same environment information and experience

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68
Q

What is experimental design/ participants design

A

Way in which participants are used in experiments and how participants are assigned certain conditions which can be done in three ways

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69
Q

What are the three experimental/participant design

A

Repeated measures
Independent groups
Marched paired

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70
Q

Experimental method
What is repeated measures

A

Participants experience both conditions and results are compared

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71
Q

Experimental method
Strength of repeated measures

A

Participant variable not an issue as same participants in both conditions
Less participants so more economical

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72
Q

Experimental method
Weakenesses of repeated measures

A

Order effects are a problem but can be counterbalanced
Demand characteristics may be a problem as participants guess the aim
More than one test needed

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73
Q

Experimental method
What is independent groups

A

Participants take part in one condition then results compared

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74
Q

Experimental method
Weaknesses of independent groups

A

Participant variables
Less economical

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75
Q

Experimental method
Strengths of independent groups

A

No order effects as participant only take parent once
Participants less likely to guess aim
Only ne test needed

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76
Q

Experimental method
What is matched pairs

A

Two separate groups of participants and are paired on key characteristics eg matched on IQ so it tries to control participant variables

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77
Q

Experimental method
Weakness of matched pairs

A

Still participant variables as can’t match exactly
Matching is time consuming and expensive
Less economical

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78
Q

Experimental method
Strength is matched pair

A

No order effects as participant only in one condition
Less demand characteristics as didnt guess aim of the study as only in one conditions

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79
Q

Experimental method
What’s counterbalancing

A

Attempt to minimise the effects of order effects in a related measures design and attempts to balance out order effects but cant get rid of them

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80
Q

Experimental method
How is counter balancing used

A

Half the participant do condition A then B and Half the participants do B. Then A

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81
Q

Experimental method
What’s random allocation

A

Used in independent groups to avoid bias from the researcher and participants who may choose to be in particular conditions to attempt to evenly distributed characteristics across the conditions of the experiment random techniques

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82
Q

Experimental method
How is random allocation used

A

Participants randomly allocated to conditions using random techniques to address the problem of participants variables in the two conditions

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83
Q

Experimental method
What are the four types of experiments

A

Laboratory experiments, field experiments, natural experiments and Quasi experiments

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84
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
What are laboratory experiments

A

Highly controlled environments eg a classroom or lab
Experimenter manipulates IV

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85
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
Strengths of lab experiments

A

-high control over extraneous variables
-more confidence that IV has affected the DV
-replication is possible because of control

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86
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
Weaknesses of lab experiments

A

-lacks generalisability to other setting so low external validity
-lacks generalisability to real life so low ecological validity
-participants more likely to act unnaturally so demand characteristics
-tasks complete by participants don’t represent real life

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87
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
What is field experiments

A

IV manipulated by experimenter but setting more natural everyday one

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88
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
Strengths of field experiments

A

-higher mundane realism than lab experiments because environment is more natural
-may produce behaviour that is more valid and authentic
-participants may be unaware they’re being studied so high external validity

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89
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
Weaknesses of field experiments

A

-less control over extraneous variables
-cause and effect between the IV and DV more difficult to establish
-precise replication not possible
-ethical issues informed consent from participants
-possible invasion of privacy

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90
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
What are natural experiments

A

-researcher take advantage of pre existing independent variable
-variable would’ve changed even if experimenter not there
-setting not always natural eg could be a lab

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91
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
Strengths of natural experiments

A

-provides opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons
-often high external validity as they study real life issues and problems as they happen

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92
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
Weaknesses of natural experiments

A

-naturally occurring event may only happen reducing the opportunities for research
-generalising findings to other similar situations will be limited
-participants may not have been randomly allocated to groups so less sure IV affected the DV

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93
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
What are quasi experiments

A

IV based on existing difference between people eg gender age or having medical condition and it’s not manipulated it already exists

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94
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
Strengths of quasi experiments

A

Often carried out under controlled conditions therefore share the same strengths of a lab experiment

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95
Q

Experimental method
Types of experiments
Weaknesses of quasi experiments

A

Cannot randomly allocate participants they’re already in this conditions
-may be confounding variable

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96
Q

Experimental method
What is a single blind procedure

A

Participants sometimes not be told the aim of the study and may also not be told what condition of th experiment they’re in

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97
Q

Experimental method
What’s the point of single blind procedure

A

Attempt to control the effects of demand characteristics

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98
Q

Experimental method
What’s a double blind procedure

A

Neither participants nor the researcher is aware of there aims of the investigation and often a third party conducts the investigation

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99
Q

Experimental method
What is the control condition is the drug trial example

A

Group that receive the placebo

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100
Q

Experimental method
What’s the experimental conditions on the drug trial example

A

The groups that receives the real drug

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101
Q

Experimental method
What’s are pilot studies

A

Small scale retrial run of actual investigation may involve handful of participants to check it runs smoothly

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102
Q

Experimental method
Why are pilot studies used

A

Check the experiment runs smoothly and researcher can identify potential issues and modify the design or procedure to save time and money in the long run

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103
Q

Sampling
What is the population

A

Large group of individuals that a particular researcher may be interested in

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104
Q

Sampling
What is the sample

A

Selection of participants taken from the target population being studied and intended to be representative of that population

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105
Q

Sampling
Why is it tricky to get a representation sample

A

Target population will be so diverse
Most samples contain some bias

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106
Q

Sampling
Why is a representative sample good

A

Allows generalisation of findings to be possible

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107
Q

Sampling
What are the five types

A

Random
Systematic
Stratified
Opportunity
Volunteer

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108
Q

Sampling
What is random sampling

A

When all members of target population have an equal chance of being selected

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109
Q

Sampling
How is random sampling done

A

Complete list of all members of the target population obtained
And then assigned a random number
Then put in a random number generator or picked out of a hat

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110
Q

Sampling
Strengths 0f random sampling

A

Free from researcher bias (no influence over who’s Chloe not just choosing those who support the hypothesis )

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111
Q

Sampling
Weaknesses of random sampling

A

Difficult and time consuming
Sample may still be unrepresentative eg all females
Selected participants may refuse to take part

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112
Q

Sampling
What happens in systematic sampling

A

Sampling frame produced
Every nth person is selected
Interval determined randomly to avoid bias

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113
Q

Sampling
Strengths of systematic sampling

A

Free from researcher bias
Usually fairly representative

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114
Q

Sampling
Weaknesses of systematic sampling

A

Complete list of target population may be hard to obtain
Selected participants may refuse to take part
Still possible to get unrepresentative sample

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115
Q

Sampling
What is stratified sampling

A

Composition f the sample reflects the proportions of the strata within the target population

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116
Q

Sampling
How is stratified sampling done

A

First identify different strata that make up the population
Find proportions of different strata
Participants that make up each strata selected through random sampling

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117
Q

Sampling
Strengths of stratified sampling

A

Free from researcher bias
Produced representative sample -designed to accurately represent composition of population
Generalisation of findings possible

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118
Q

Sampling
Weaknesses of stratified sampling

A

Difficult and time consuming
Selected participants may refuse to take part
Identified strata cannot reflect all ways people are different

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119
Q

Sampling
How is opportunity sampling done

A

Anyone who is available and willing at the time is asked by the researcher

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120
Q

Sampling
Strengths of opportunity sampling

A

Convenient-saves researcher time and effort
Less costly than other techniques

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121
Q

Sampling
Weaknesses of opportunity sampling

A

Suffers from bias
Unrepresentative of the target population as it’s drawn from a very specific area and finding can’t be generalised to population
Researcher bias as may avoid certain participants

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122
Q

Sampling
What’s volunteer sampling

A

Participants select themselves to be part of sample (self-selecting)

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123
Q

Sampling
Strengths of volunteer sampling

A

Easy- requires ,minimal input from the researcher and less time consuming than other techniques

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124
Q

Sampling
Weaknesses of volunteer sampling

A

Volunteer bias
May attract a certain profile of persons eg helpful and keen
Might affect generalisability

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125
Q

Case study
What are cast studies

A

In-depth detailed investigations of one individual, small group, institution or event usually in the real world

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126
Q

Case studies
What are case studies in nature (issues and debate)

A

Idiographic and individualistic

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127
Q

Case studies
What do they usually involve

A

Biographical details, behavioural information, experiences of interest, often analysis of unusual individuals or events but may also concentrate on typical cases

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128
Q

Case studies
What are they exp;anations of

A

Explanations of behaviour outlines in a subjective way

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129
Q

Case studies
What type of date is usually produced

A

Qualitative

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130
Q

Case studies
How can data be made for case studies

A

Interviews, observations, questionnaires,experimental testing to asses what a person can or can’t do

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131
Q

Case studies
Often what type of studies

A

Longitudinal

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132
Q

Case studies
All advantages

A

Rich detail – case studies provide great depth and understanding about individuals and acknowledge human diversity
Give us insight on unusual forms of behavior and ‘normal’ functioning
Case studies are about real people. Information relates to a real person – not just an average gathered from many
Case studies can be longitudinal and so changes in experience can be observed over time, rather than just a ‘snapshot’ of experience provided by other methods
Case studies usually involve several methods (observation, interviews, etc.), enabling checks for consistency/reliability/validity whereas other methods just use a single method of data collection
Allows psychologists to study unique behaviours or experiences that couldn’t have been studied any other way
Allows sensitive areas to be explored e.g. effects of sexual abuse
Useful for theory contradiction – just one case study can contradict a theory

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133
Q

Case studies advantages
Detail as an advantage

A

Rich detail as case studies provide great depth and understanding about individuals and acknowledge human diversity

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134
Q

Case studies advantages
What do they give insight

A

Unusual forms of behaviour and normal functioning

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135
Q

Case studies advantages
Ecological validity

A

About real people so information relates to a real person and not just average from many
Longitudinal and so changes in experience can be observed over time rather than just a snap shot of experience frovided by other methods

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136
Q

Case studies advantages
Methods to collect data

A

Often involves several methods a eg observation and interviews enabling checks for consistency/reliability/validity compared to over methods which only use a single method of collection

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137
Q

Case studies advantages
What else are they useful for

A

Theory contradiction as just on case study can contradict a theory

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138
Q

Case studies disadvantages

A

Not representative – no two cases are alike, results cannot be generalised to others
Because it is very difficult to replicate a case study, they lack reliability
As case studies are unique situations, it’s very difficult to generalize to other situations
Researcher bias – researchers conducting case studies may be biased in their interpretations
Reliance on memory – the information gathered is often based on retrospective data (often depend upon participants having full and accurate memories) so may not be accurate

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139
Q

Case studies disadvantages
Why isn’t it representative

A

No two cases are alike so results can’t be generalised to other

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140
Q

Case studies disadvantages
Why do they lack reliability

A

Because its very difficult to replicate a case study as they’re all unique

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141
Q

Case studies disadvantages
Researcher bias

A

Researchers conducting case studies may be biased in their interpretations

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142
Q

Case studies disadvantages
Reliance on memory

A

Information gathered is often based on retrospective date often dependent upon participants having full and accurate memories so may not be representative

143
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
What are measures of central tendency

A

Averages which give us information about the most typical values in a set of data
Mean mode and median

144
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
What are measures of dispersion

A

Tell us about the spread of scores and how they differ and vary form one another
Range and standard deviation

145
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
How do you find the mean

A

Add up all values and divide by number of values

146
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Strengths of the mean

A

Most sensitive of the measures of central tendency as it includes all the scores in the data set
More representative of the data as a whole

147
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Weaknesses of mean

A

Easily distorted by extreme values so the mean may to be representative in this case
Can’t be used with ordinal
Mean may not be one of the actual scores in the data set

148
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
What the median

A

Middle value in a data set when scores arranged from lowest to highest

149
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Strengths of median

A

Extreme scores don’t affect the middle value
Easy to calculate
Can be used with ordinal data

150
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Weaknesses of median

A

Less sensitive than the mean as not all scores are included in the final calculation

151
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
What’s the mode

A

Most frequently occurring value in a data set
Can be two modes or no modes

152
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Strengths of mode

A

Easy to calculate
Less prone to distortion by extreme values
May be only method you can use eg ordinal

153
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Weaknesses of mode

A

Very crude measure
Doesn’t use all scores
May not e a mode
May not be representative of data as a whole

154
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
What is the range

A

Simple calculation of spread of values
Take lowest value from the highest value

155
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Strength of the range

A

Easy to calculate

156
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Weaknesses of range

A

Only takes into accounts two most extreme values therefore unrepresentative of data set as a whole
Doesn’t show whether data is clustered or spreads evenly around the mean

157
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
What is standard deviation

A

Single values that tells us how far scored deviate from the mean
The larger, the greater spread of score

158
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
When talking about a particular condition within an experiment what does a large standard deviation mean

A

Not all participants were affected in the same way by the IV

159
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
What does a low standard deviation mean within an experiment

A

Implies participants responded in a fairly similar way

160
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Strength of standard deviation

A

Much more précis measure of dispersion than the range as it includes all values

161
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Weakness of standard deviation

A

More complicated to calculate
Can be distorted by extreme values

162
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
What measures can be used in nominal level of measurement

A

Mode
No dispersion

163
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
What measures can be used in ordinal level of measurement

A

Median and mode
Range

164
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
What measures can be used in interval level of measurement

A

Mean median and mode
Range and standard deviation

165
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Why is it not appropriate to use the mean or standard deviation for ordinal data

A

Intervals between the units of measurement are not of equal size

166
Q

Measures of central tendency and dispersion
How do you answer the 4 mark question for mean and standard deviation

A

General statement about mean (include IV and DV) (1)
Evidence about mean and conditions specific (1)
General statement about standard deviation (include IV and DV) (1)
Evidence about standard deviation and condition specific (1)

167
Q

Correlation
What is correlation not

A

Repeated measure’s independent groups or matched pairs

168
Q

Correlation
What does each participant do

A

Provide data for two measures

169
Q

Correlationwhat are covariables

A

Correlations haver two variables and both are measured

170
Q

Correlation
What do they not show

A

Cause and effect they’re looking for a relationship between the two variables

171
Q

Correlation
What is a correlation

A

Relationship between two variables measured on a scale and where both measures come from one individual

172
Q

Correlation
What is a positive correlation

A

Where as one variable increases so does the other

173
Q

Correlation
Positive correlation coefficient

A

+1 would be the perfect positive correlation so the closer to this number you get shows a positive correlation

174
Q

Correlation
What is a considered a strong positive correlation

A

0.7 ands above

175
Q

Correlation
What is a negative correlation

A

Where’s as pone variable increases the other decreases

176
Q

Correlation
Negative correlation coefficient

A

-1 would be perfect negative correlation so the closer you get to this number you get shows a negative correlation

177
Q

Correlation
What’s condsidered a strong negative correlation

A

-0.7

178
Q

Correlation
What is no correlation

A

Where there’s no relationship between the two variable

179
Q

Correlation
What is correlational data presented on

A

Scatter graph

180
Q

Correlation
How are correlations hypotheses different to experiments

A

No IV and DV
Hypothesis still has to clearly state the expected relationship between the covariables and must be clearly operationalised

181
Q

Correlation
How do you write a non directional correlation all hypothesis

A

There will be a correlation between … and … (operationalised)

182
Q

Correlation
How do you write a directional correlational hypothesis

A

There will be a positive/negative correlation between … and … (operationalised )

183
Q

Correlation
How do you write a null correlational hypothesis

A

There will be no correlation between … and … (operationalised

184
Q

Correlation
What are the strengths of a correlational design

A

Little manipulation of variables
Show unexpected relationships
Study something which can’t be changed deliberately
Show statistical relationships

185
Q

Correlation
Why is there being little manipulation of variables a strength of this design

A

Measures often taken in existing situations with few controls needed and design is quite straight forward compared with other methods

186
Q

Correlation
Why is being able to show unexpected relationships a strength of this’d design

A

Can prompt future research in new areas

187
Q

Correlation
Why is being able to study something which can’t be deliberately changed a strength

A

Allow to study something that an experimenter can’t change as it would be unethical or something which happens naturally which can’t be done by other designs

188
Q

Correlation
Why is showing a statistical relationships between variables a strength

A

It’s objective reliable and scientific and if correlation isn’t significant can rule out a causal relationship

189
Q

Correlation
What are the weaknesses of a correlational design

A

Don’t prove cause and effect
Tend to lack validity

190
Q

Correlation
Why is correlations not proving a cause and effect between variables a weakness

A

Only proves covariables may be related. Variable a may cause variable b or vice versa and may be a third variable having an effect as extraneous variables are not controlled

191
Q

Correlation
Why is correlational studies lacking validity a weakness

A

Whenever a score is manufactured there’s always a chance its not meaningful

192
Q

Distributions
What are distributions

A

Visual representations of psychological data used to interpret data and how the data is distributed

193
Q

Distributions
Where should the mode lways be

A

At the highest point

194
Q

Distributions
What is the idea of a normal distribution

A

For a given attributes such as IQ most scores will be on or around the mean

195
Q

Distributions
What shape should a normal distribution form

A

A bell shaped curve

196
Q

Distributions
What should all count the same point on a normal distribution

A

Mean mode and median

197
Q

Distributions
What is true of the tails of the curve on a normal distribution

A

Extend outwards and never touch the x axis

198
Q

Distributions
What are skewed distributions

A

Data doesn’t form a balanced symmetrical pattern ands appear to lean to one side or another

199
Q

Distributions
What is a positive skew

A

Most of distribution is concentrated towards the left of the graph resulting in a long tail on the right

200
Q

Distributions
Where’s the mean mode and median on a positive skew

A

Mode remains at highest point of the peak
Median in the middle
Mean is on the rright

201
Q

Distributions
How to remember a positive skew

A

From standing at the origins as though a whale is swimming towards you and its a positive thing

202
Q

Distributions
What is a negative skew

A

Most of the distributions towards the right of the graph and results in along tail of anomalous data on the left

203
Q

Distributions
Where is the mean median and mode on a negative skew

A

Mode remains at highest point of the peak
Median always in the middle
Mean is on the left

204
Q

Distributions
How to remember negative skew

A

Standing from the origin as if the whale is swimming away which is a bad thing

205
Q

Ethics
What are ethics

A

Issues around hat is seen as right and wrong and acceptable with regards to the actions of others or or societies
Values and beliefs

206
Q

Ethics
When can ethical issues arise

A

When there’s a conflict between the rights of participants and the researchers need to gain valuable and meaningful findings

207
Q

Ethics
What is the BPS code of ethics

A

Reseachers have professional duty which ensures all participants are treated with respect and consideration
Cost benefit approach taken by the ethics committees

208
Q

Ethics
Types of ethical issues

A

Informed consent
Deception
Protection from harm
Right to withdraw
Privacy and confidentiality

209
Q

Ethics
What is informed consent

A

Investigators should give participants sufficient details of an investigation that they can make a considered choice to whether they wish to participate

210
Q

Ethics
When is parental consent needed

A

Children under the age of 16

211
Q

Ethics
Who can’t informed consent be gained from

A

Those under the influence of alcohol or drugs or mentally unfit

212
Q

Ethics
How is informed consent dealt with

A

Participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect the decision to participate

213
Q

Ethics
What are the three alternative ways of getting consent and why is it used

A

Presumptive consent
Prior general consent
Retrospective consent
Researchers think consent and participant knowing aim could spoil the research

214
Q

Ethics
What is presumptive consent

A

Ask similar group of people if the study is acceptable if they agree consent of original particiapants is presumed

215
Q

Ethics
What’s prior general consent

A

Participant give their permission to take part in a number of studied including one that will involve deception

216
Q

Ethics
What’s retrospective consent

A

Participants asked for consent after taking part in the study

217
Q

Ethics
What’s deception

A

Withholding of information or misleading participant and it’s unacceptable if participants are likely to object or shown unease once debriefed

218
Q

Ethics
What should be a voided in relation to deception

A

Intentionally deceiving over the purpose and general nature of investigations
Shouldn’t deliberately be misled without scientific or medical justification

219
Q

Ethics
How should deception be dealt with if participants can’t know the aim

A

In an ethical manner

220
Q

Ethics
What is protection from harm

A

As a result of their involvement participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would normally physical or psychological

221
Q

Ethics
How is protection from harm and deception dealt with

A

Debriefing where participant should be made of the true aim of study, what their data will be used for and given right to withdraw data
Reassure behaviour was typical
And may need to refer to a counsellor

222
Q

Ethics
What is right to withdraw

A

Participants have right to leave the study at any point without giving reason and without consequence

223
Q

Ethics
How is right to withdraw dealt with

A

Participants should be informed throughout they can withdraw and if they do even though frustrating they can
Afterwards have right to withdraw their data

224
Q

Ethics
What is right of privacy

A

Participant have right to control information about themselves and if invaded confidentiality should be protected

225
Q

Ethics
What’s confidentiality

A

Right to have any personal data protected

226
Q

Ethics
Observational research in privacy and confidentiality

A

Observation only made in public spaced where people might expect to be observed by stranger

227
Q

Ethics
How is confidentiality dealt with

A

Personal data must be protected
Numbers used instead of names in papers
In briefing and debriefing participant reminded data protected

228
Q

Ethics
What is briefing and debriefing

A

When participants arrive give briefing to provide informed consent after they will be debriefed

229
Q

Ethics
What is a brief

A

Instructions and consent before research starts

230
Q

Ethics
Checklist for writing a brief

A

Who you are
Area of research
Who’s conducting research
What procedure is
Where research will happen
How long it’ll take
If recorded
Data stored securely
Will remain anonymous
Can withdraw
More detail
Chance to ask questions
Appropriate ending (name signature and date)

231
Q

Ethics
Checklist for writing a debrief

A

Thank participant
Make aware of true aims
Know rational as why it’s important
Give any extra detail that wasn’t know before
Where data will be used
Remind of withdrawal
Behaviour was typical
May require counselling
Refer to any professionals or service
Ask for any questions
Name and email

232
Q

Observations
What is the main way of obtaining data

A

Watching

233
Q

Observations
What does observations allow to do

A

Psychologists to see what people do without asking them and to observe behaviour in a natural or controlled setting

234
Q

Observations
Why is the absence of variables a positive

A

Can study more complex interactions

235
Q

Observations
What is the crossover with experiments

A

Observation sometimes used within an experiment to assss the DV

236
Q

Observations
What is the cross over with case studies

A

Can involve observation that is not the main way of collecting data

237
Q

Observations
What are the types of observations

A

Naturalistic or controlled
Participant or non-participant
Covert or overt

238
Q

Observations
What are naturalistic observations

A

Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur
Aspects of environment free to vary
Interactions take place as they normally would

239
Q

Observations
Advantages of naturalistic observations

A

High external validity so findings can be generalised to everyday life
Behaviour more natural and unaffected by anxiety or need to impress

240
Q

Observations
Disadvantages of naturalistic observations

A

Uncontrolled extraneous variables so difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour
Replication harder to achieve so less reliable
Behaviour not likely to be repeated

241
Q

Observations
What are controlled observations

A

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment
Some control over variables might be manipulate to observe affects
Control over extraneous variables

242
Q

Observations
Advantages of controlled observations

A

Replication is easier as extraneous variables can be controlled

243
Q

Observations
Disadvantages of controlled observations

A

Reduced naturalness of behaviour being studied
Artificial setting so less external validity
Findings not as readily applied to real life settings

244
Q

Observations
What are cover observations

A

Participants behaviour watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent and are unaware of it
Must be public setting to be ethical

245
Q

Observations
Advantages of covert observations

A

Behaviour should reman natural -reduced participant reactivity
Increased validity as usual behaviour

246
Q

Observations
Disadvantages of covert observations

A

Ethical issues around informed consent privacy and deception and right to withdraw

247
Q

Observations
What are overt observations

A

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

248
Q

Observations
Advantages of overt observations

A

No ethical issues around informed consent deception privacy or right to withdraw

249
Q

Observations
Disadvantages of overt observations

A

Know your being watched may alter behaviour so affects validity
Demand characteristics as participants guess what expecteing to see
Participant reactivity

250
Q

Observations
What are participant observation

A

Researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he or she is watching
May be hidden in order to join a group

251
Q

Observations
Advantages of participant observations

A

Likely to provide special insights int the behaviour from inside
Increased validity as no strange observer affecting behaviour

252
Q

Observations
Disadvantages of participant observations

A

May affect observers objectivity as line between being researcher and participant
May lie on memory as no time to take notes
Interferes with group behaviour
Replication difficult so validity of data cannot be checked

253
Q

Observations
Whatare nonparticipant observations

A

Researcher remains outside of group their watching and recording

254
Q

Observations
Advantage of nonparticipant observations

A

More objective
Doesn’t interfere with behaviour being observed

255
Q

Observations
Disadvantages of non participant observations

A

Cant provide info of how people feel
Data less likely to be rich
Data less valid
May lose valuable insight as far away from participants

256
Q

Observations
What are the ways to record data

A

Unstructured
Structured

257
Q

Observations
What does researcher do for unstructured observation

A

Write down everything they see

258
Q

Observations
What does unstructured observation produce for data

A

Accounts of data that are rich in detail

259
Q

Observations
What is unstructured observation appropriate for

A

Small scale studies with only a few participants

260
Q

Observations
What is done in structured observation

A

Target behaviour simplified into a behavioural checklist which clearly defined behaviour in a predetermined way

261
Q

Observations
What should the behavioural categories be in a behavioural checklist in a structured observation

A

Observable and measurable

262
Q

Observations
What way of recording data observations has use smapling for behaviour

A

structured observations

263
Q

Observations
what are the two types of sampling for behaviour

A

Event or time

264
Q

Observations
What is event sampling

A

Observer decides on specific events relevant to the investigation and recorde the behaviours every single tie they occur throughout the observation

265
Q

Observations
What is time sampling

A

Recording behaviour within a pre established time frame

266
Q

Observations
What is interobserver reliability

A

Degree of agreement between individual observers who rate code or assess the same thing

267
Q

Observations
Why is it recommended that observers don’t conduct studies alone

A

May miss important details and only notice events that confirm hypothesis which creates bias

268
Q

Observations
Strength of having two observers for the data

A

Makes data recording more objective and unbiased

269
Q

Observations
What must two observers be for interobserver reliability

A

Consistent in judgement, recorded the same or very similar, must be trained

270
Q

Observations
What is the main way to maintain to interobserver reliability

A

Have atleast two observers

271
Q

Observations
What are the ways to maintain interobserver reliability

A

-two observers
-observers familiarise themselves with behavioural categories
-observe same behaviour in a pilot study but independently
-correlate data to see how similar it is
- revisit behavioural categories and amend

272
Q

Observations
Strengths of structured observation

A

-use of behavioural categories makes recording data easier and more systematic
-behavioural categories make data collection objective
-data produced likely to be numerical so easier to analyse

273
Q

Observations
Weaknesses of structural observations

A

-if not enough categories to incorporate all target behaviours then behaviour may not be recorded
-if categories ambiguous or overlap data may be inaccurate

274
Q

Observations
Strength of unstructured observations

A

Benefit from richness and depth of detail

275
Q

Observations
Weakness if unstructured observation

A

-produces qualitative data hard to analyse and record
-greater risk of observer bias
-difficult to record alll behaviour so might be misses

276
Q

Observations
Strength of event sampling

A

Useful when behaviour happens quite infrequently

277
Q

Observations
Weakness of event sampling

A

If behaviour too complex may be overlooked important details

278
Q

Observations
Strength of time sampling

A

Effective in reducing number of observations needed to be made

279
Q

Observations
Weaknesses of time sampling

A

Target behaviour may be missed if occurs between chosen time frame
Might be unrepresentative of observation as a whole

280
Q

Graphs and tables
What are summary tables

A

When raw scores are converted into descriptive statistics in a table

281
Q

Graphs and tables
When use a bar chart

A

Show data in form of categories to be compared to discrete data

282
Q

Graphs and tables
For a bar chart what’s on the x axis

A

Categories

283
Q

Graphs and tables
How should the bars be on a bar chart

A

Same width separated by spaces to illustrate the data isn’t continuous

284
Q

Graphs and tables
What goes on y axis for a bar chart

A

The dependant variable

285
Q

Graphs and tables
When should a histogram be used

A

With continuous data

286
Q

Graphs and tables
What is on the x axis on a histogram

A

Continuous scores

287
Q

Graphs and tables
What is on the y axis for histograms

A

Frequency of data scores

288
Q

Graphs and tables
How are the bars for a histogram

A

No spaces between bars as data is continuous and column width should be same for each category

289
Q

Graphs and tables
What is on the x axis for a line graph or frequency polygon

A

Continuous data

290
Q

Graphs and tables
How is a line graph or frequency polygon produced

A

Drawing line from midpoint top of each bar

291
Q

Graphs and tables
Advantage of line graph

A

Two or more frequency distributions can be compared on same graph

292
Q

Graphs and tables
When is a scattergraph used

A

With correlation data
Two different covariables

293
Q

Graphs and tables
How is a scatterghraph plotted

A

One score along x axis and one up y axis

294
Q

Graphs and tables
What does a scattergrpah show

A

Relationship between two variables

295
Q

Graphs and tables
What has to be in the tile of a scattergraph

A

Relationship between …

296
Q

Graphs and tables
What are pie charts used to show

A

Frequency of categories as percentages

297
Q

Graphs and tables
How do you know which category is which on a pie chart

A

Sections colour coded and labelled with percentage (could be asked to predict)

298
Q

Self report
What is self report

A

Where participant gives information to the researcher and provides details of their own thoughts feeling and behaviour

299
Q

Self report
What does a questionnaire involve

A

A pre set list of written questions to which participants responds used to asses thoughts or feelings

300
Q

Self report
What might questionnaires be used as in an experiments

A

To asses the DV

301
Q

Self report
What are the two types of questions

A

Open and closed

302
Q

Self report
What are open questions

A

Don’t have a fixed range of answers and respondents free to answer in any way

303
Q

Self report
What type of data do open questions produce

A

Qualitative data rich in depth and. Detail

304
Q

Self report
Is data from open questions easy to analyse

A

May be difficult

305
Q

Self report
What are closed questions

A

Offers a fixed number of responses such as yes or no, a 1-10 scale

306
Q

Self report
What type of data is produces from closed questions

A

Quantitative which may lack detail sna dos depth

307
Q

Self report
Is it easy to analyses data from closed questions

A

Yes

308
Q

Self report
Strengths of qeistionaires

A

Cost effective- can gather large amounts of data as distribution to large amounts of people
Completed without researcher being present which reduced effort and investigator effects
Can be easierly statistically analysed as comparisons made using graphs charts using either qualitative or quantitative data
Standardised so easy to replicate

309
Q

Self report
Questionnaire weaknesses

A

Demand characteristics
Social desirability when participants answer in a way which makes themselves look better
Acquiescence bias as peop,e agree with items regardless of the question
Misunderstanding questio eg confusing
Biased sample as only people willing to complete them which may be a certain type of person so not representative
Low response rates can be uneconomical

310
Q

Self report
What are interviews

A

Involve face to face interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee

311
Q

Self report
What are the three types of interviews

A

Structured, unstructured and semi structured

312
Q

Self report
What are structured interviews

A

Made up of pre determines set of questions asked in a fixed order
Interviewer asks question and waits for response

313
Q

Self report
What are unstructured interviews

A

More conversation like and no set of wqiestions
General aim or topic to be discussed
Interviewee encourage to explained and elaborate answers

314
Q

Self report
What are semi structured interviews

A

List of question worked out in advance but interviewers free to follow up with qiuestions where appropriate

315
Q

Self report
Advantages of interviews

A

Less misunderstanding as can be explained or adapted to understand
Replication- structured interviews can be easily replicated
Unstructured interviews allows follow up of point to gain more insights

316
Q

Self report
Disadvantages of interviews

A

Interviewer effects - unconsciously biogas answers
Demand characteristics and social desirability bias
Lot of skill needed for unstructured interviews
Ethics if participants don’t know true purpose
Analysis of data from unstructured interview isn’t easy and drawing conclusions from vast amounts of data may not be possible

317
Q

Self report
What is social desirability bias

A

tendency for respondents to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light which lowers validity

318
Q

Self report design
When designing a questionnaire what can closed questions be further divided into

A

Likert scales
Rating scales
Fixed choice options

319
Q

Self report design
What are likert scales

A

Respondent indicates their agreement or other wise with a state sent using a scale of usually 5 points ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree (each number attached with a statement)

320
Q

Self report design
What are rating scales

A

Respondent identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about the topics

321
Q

Self report design
What a fixed choice option

A

Includes list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those which apply to them

322
Q

Self report design
What a interview schedules

A

List of questions the interviewer intends to ask

323
Q

Self report design
Why is the interview schedule standardised

A

To reduce interviewer bias

324
Q

Self report design
What should a interview be began with

A

Neutral questions making participant feel relaxed/ comfortable and establish rapport

325
Q

Self report design
What should participants be reminded of

A

Confidentiality or right to withdraw

326
Q

Self report design
What should be avoided when writing questions

A

Overuse of technical terms which lead to confusion and frustration
Emotive language and leading questions
Double barrelled questions
Double negatives

327
Q

Content analysis
What is it

A

Techniques for analysing qualitative data of various kinds

328
Q

Content analysis
What is it a method for

A

Quantifying qualitative data by placing the categories and counting their occurrence

329
Q

Content analysis
What is it a type of

A

Observational research in which people are studied indirectly via communications they have produced

330
Q

Content analysis
What is the process

A

Familiarise yourself with data
Identify important categories
Give examples
Repeatedly read through/ watch/ listen
Count and tally behaviours

331
Q

Content analysis
What are the strengths (short-list)

A

Ease of applications
Complement other method
Reliability
Avoids ethical issues
Type of data produces

332
Q

Content analysis
Why is ease of application a strength

A

Easy to perform
Inexpensive research method
Noninvasive as doesn’t require participants

333
Q

Content analysis
Why is complementing other methods a strength

A

Can verify results from other research methods and is especially useful as a longitudinal tool

334
Q

Content analysis
Why is reliability a strength

A

Easy to replicate using same materials

335
Q

Content analysis
How is avoiding ethical issues a strength

A

Much of the material such as adverts or newspapers are already in public domain so no issues with permission

336
Q

Content analysis
Weaknesses (short-list)

A

Descriptive
Flowed results
Lack of causality
Lack of objectivity

337
Q

Content analysis
Why is descitipitve a weakness

A

Doesn’t reveal underlying reasons for behaviour or attitudes

338
Q

Content analysis
Why is flawed result a weakness

A

Limited by availability of material so observed trends may not reflect reality eg negative events receive more coverage then positive ones

339
Q

Content analysis
Why is lack of causality a weakness

A

Not performed under controlled conditions

340
Q

Content analysis
What is thematic analysis

A

Qualitative analytic method involves analysing data to identify patterns and themes within it
Organises describes and interprets data
Themes become categories for analysis

341
Q

Content analysis
Stagesfor thematic analysis

A

Familiarisation with data
Coding
Searching for themes
Reviewing themes
Defining and naming themes
Writing up

342
Q

Content analysis
What is familiarisation with data for thematic

A

Intensively reading data to become immersed in its content

343
Q

Content analysis
What is coding for thematic

A

Generating codes that identify features of the data important to answering the research question

344
Q

Content analysis
What’s searching for themes in thematic

A

Examining codes and dara to identify patterns of meaning

345
Q

Content analysis
What is reviewing themes in thematic

A

Checking potential themes to see if they explains the data and answer the research question themes are then refined

346
Q

Content analysis
What is defining and naming themes for thematic

A

Detailed analysis of each theme creating an informative name for each one

347
Q

Content analysis
What is writing up in thematic

A

Combining all information gained from the analysis

348
Q

Content analysis
What is the difference between content analysis and thematic analysis

A

Thematic goes beyond just counting words or phrases it involved identifying ideas within data and analysing and interpreting

349
Q

Implications of psychological research on the economy

What are implications

A

How what we learn from they findings of psychological research influences affects benefits or devalues the economy

350
Q

Implications of psychological research on the economy
What does psychology create and why

A

Practical applications used in everyday life hopefully for betterment of society throng conducting research

351
Q

Implications of psychological research on the economy
What is an example of the practical application

A

Creating effective therapies

352
Q

Implications of psychological research on the economy
What do these practical applications allow for and how impact economy

A

Developed through research allowing many people to go to work and contribute to the economy, earn ,money, pay taxes, not incur long term financial costs upon health service, business don’t pay sick pay and recruite employees to cover absence

353
Q

Implications of psychological research on the economy
What are the 4 questions needed to answer the question

A

What has this research told us, what specifically discovered?
What has this led to?
What are the consequences for the individual concerned ?
What are the implications for businesses or the wider economy

354
Q

Implications of psychological research on the economy
What are the sentence prompts to use

A

Psychological research into … has told us that…
This has led to… (practical application)
The consequences for the individual are …
Implications for businesses or wider economy are…

Psychology (11 decks)

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