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Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

The nervous system
Overview map

A

Nervous system
/. \
Peripheral. Central nervous system
Nervous system /. \
/. . Spinal cord. Brain
Somatic. Autonomic
nervous Nervous
system System
/. \
Sympathetic. Parasympathetic
Nervous system Nervous system

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2
Q

The nervous system
What is the nervous system

A

Specialist network of cells in the human body and is our primarily internal communication system

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3
Q

The nervous system
What are the two main functions of the nervous system

A

-collect process and respond to information in the environment
-coordinate the working of different organs and cells in the body

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4
Q

The nervous system
What two systems is it divided into

A

-central nervous system
-peripheral nervous system

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5
Q

The nervous system
What is the central nervous system made up of

A

The brain and spinal cord

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6
Q

The nervous system
What is the brains main job

A

Ensure life is maintained

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7
Q

The nervous system
What is the brain the centre of

A

All concours awareness where decision making takes place

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8
Q

The nervous system
What is the cerebral cortex

A

Brains outer layer

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9
Q

The nervous system
What’s special about the cerebral cortex in humans

A

Highly developed

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10
Q

The nervous system
What separates humans from other animals

A

Higher mental functions

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11
Q

The nervous system
How many hemispheres is the brain divided into

A

Two

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12
Q

The nervous system
What is the spinal cord and extension of

A

The brain

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13
Q

The nervous system
What is the spinal cord responsible for

A

reflex actions and facilitates transferral of messages to and from the brain to the PNS

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14
Q

The nervous system
Why is there central nervous system important

A

Transfers messages to and from the environment
The core from which all physiology is controlled
Breathing resting heartbeat and sense all coordinated from CNS

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15
Q

The nervous system
Why do biopsychologists look to the brain for behaviour

A

Most actions and reactions are generated from the CNS

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16
Q

The nervous system
What is the peripheral nervous system

A

Extension beyond the CNS and transmits messages to the whole body from the brain

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17
Q

The nervous system
What does the PNS do

A

Transmits messages via millions of neurons to and from the CNS
Collects info about pain and threat

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18
Q

The nervous system
What two components is the PNS made of

A

Autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system

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19
Q

The nervous system
What is the autonomic nervous system in the PNS

A

Involuntary/ automatic

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20
Q

The nervous system
Where is the control centre fro the autonomic nervous system in the PNS

A

In the brain stem

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21
Q

The nervous system
What does the Autonomic nervous system in the PNS do

A

-controls internal organs and glands of the body transmits and receives information from them
-governs vital functions such as breathing rate heart rate digestions and sexual arousals and stress responses

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22
Q

The nervous system
Why is the autonomic nervous system in the PNS important for survival

A

Affects the reaction under threat and returns the body to normality (homeostasis) after a reactions

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23
Q

The nervous system
What does the autonomic nervous system in the PNS divide into

A

Sympathetic system
Parasympathetic system

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24
Q

The nervous system
What does the sympathetic system do

A

Increases activity

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25
Q

The nervous system
What does the parasympathetic system do

A

Decreases or maintains bodily activities

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26
Q

The nervous system
What are biological changes associated with the sympathetic and parasympathetic response

A

Sympathetic state. Parasympathetic state
Increases heart rate. Decreases heart rate
Increases breathing rate. Decreases breathing rate
Dilates pupils. Constricts pupils
Inhibits digestions. Stimulates digestion
Inhibits saliva production. Stimulates saliva production
Contacts rectum. Relaxes rectum

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27
Q

The nervous system
What does the somatic nervous system in the PNS

A

Controls voluntary movement under conscious control

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28
Q

The nervous system
What does the somatic nervous system in the PNS control

A

Skeletal muscle movement

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29
Q

The nervous system
What does the somatic nervous system in the PNS connect

A

The CNS and the senses

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30
Q

The nervous system
Where does the somatic nervous system in the PNS carry commands from

A

The motor cortex

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31
Q

The nervous system
What does the somatic nervous system in the PNS consist of

A

Sensory and motor neurons

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32
Q

The nervous system
What does the somatic nervous system in the PNS transmit and receive

A

-transmits sensory info from the body/sense receptors to brain/CNS
-receives information from sensory receptors eg visual info
-receives info from spin eg temp of environment
-transmits info from brain via spinal cord to muscles/ receptors

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33
Q

Endocrine system
What is the function of the endocrine system

A

Work alongside the nervous system to control/regulate vital physiological processes and functions in the body

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34
Q

Endocrine system
Compared to the nervous system

A

Acts much more slowly

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35
Q

Endocrine system
How does the endocrine system work

A

Has a series of glands through in the body which release chemicals (hormones)
These hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and regulate the activity of cells or organs

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36
Q

Endocrine system
What does the endocrine system do

A

Provides a chemical system of communication via the blood stream
Communicates messages to the organs of the body

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37
Q

Endocrine system
What could an imbalance of hormones lead to and example

A

Dysfunction eg high levels of cortisone may cause Cushings disease which can lead to a myriad of symptoms

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38
Q

Endocrine system
Functions of the pituitary gland

A

Controls the release of hormones from all other endocrine glands in the body and can also directly produce and effect eg causes breast to lactate

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39
Q

Endocrine system
Function of the adrenal gland

A

Important part of the fight or flight response as its facilitates the release of adrenaline which stimulates the heart rate contracts blood vessels and dilates air passages

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40
Q

Endocrine system
Function of testes

A

Facilitate the release of testosterone which has been implicated in aggression

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41
Q

Endocrine system
Function of ovaries

A

Facilitates the release of oestrogen and progesterone implicated in menstruation

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42
Q

Endocrine system
Function of the thyroid gland

A

Secrets thyroxine, increase heart rate, creases metabolic rates and affects growth rates

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43
Q

Endocrine system
Is behaviour thought to be influenced by hormones

A

Yes and each hormone throught to affect behaviour in a different way

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44
Q

Endocrine system
Which two systems often work in in parallel

A

The endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system

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45
Q

Endocrine system
What is the fight or flight generated from

A

The autonomic nervous system (sympathetic branch)

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46
Q

Endocrine system
What is the fight or flight response

A

Reflex response designed to help and individual manage physically when under threat and is also activated in times of stress as the body perceives stress to be a threat

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47
Q

Endocrine system
What does the fight or flight response help the individual to do

A

React quicker than normals and facilitates optimal functioning -fight the threat or run away

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48
Q

Endocrine system
How quick does the flight or fight response happen

A

In an instant as soon as the threat is perceived as its and automatic reaction in the body

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49
Q

Endocrine system
First step of the fight or flight response

A

Stressor is perceived

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50
Q

Endocrine system
Second step of the fight or flight response

A

Hypothalamus triggers activity in the sympathetic nervous system in the ANS from the normal resting parasympathetic state to and aroused sympathetic state

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51
Q

Endocrine system
Third step of the fight or flight response

A

Stress hormone adrenaline released from the adrenal medulla into the blood stream

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52
Q

Endocrine system
Fourth step of the fight or flight response

A

Physiological changes in body

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53
Q

Endocrine system
Final happenings of the fight or flight response

A

Once threat has passed the body returns to the resting parasympathetic state and reduces the activities of the body which were increased by the sympathetic state

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54
Q

Endocrine system
What physiological changes happen in response to the fight or flight response

A

Increases heart rate, faster breathing rate,muscle tension, pupil dilation, production of sweat, reduced functioning of the digestive and immune system

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55
Q

Endocrine system
Why does the heart rate increase in the fight or flight response

A

To speed up the blood flow to vitals organs and improve the spread of adrenaline around the body

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56
Q

Endocrine system
Why does the breathing rate get faster in the fight or flight response

A

To increase oxygen intake

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57
Q

Endocrine system
Why does muscle tension happen in the fight or flight response

A

To improve reaction time and speed

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58
Q

Endocrine system
Why do pupils dilate in the fight or flight response

A

To improve vision

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59
Q

Endocrine system
Why is sweat priced in the fight or flight response

A

To facilitate temperature regulation

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60
Q

Endocrine system
Why is the functioning of the immune and digestive system reduced in the fight or flight response

A

To save energy for prioritise functions eg running

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61
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
How many neurons in the brain and spinal cord

A

100 billion in the brain
1 billlion in the spinal cord

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62
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What do neurons do

A

Receive informations and transmit it to other cells

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63
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What are the three types of neurons

A

Sensory
Relay
Motor

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64
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What is the function of the sensory neuron

A

Carry messages from the PNS to the CNS
Tell the brain about the external and internal environment by processing information taken from the senses

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65
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What is the function of the the relay neuron

A

Carry messages from one part of the CNS to another
Connect motor and sensory neurons

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66
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What is the function of a motor neuron

A

Connect the CNS to muscles and glands (effectors
Carry signals from the CNS which helps muscles and glands to functions

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67
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What does sensory neurons look like

A

Long dentrites and short axons
Have cell body sticking out from middle of axon

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68
Q

Structure and functions of neurons what do relay neurons look like

A

Short dendrites and short axons
Looks kinda spidery

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69
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What do motor neurons look like

A

Short denrites and long axons
Cell body connected into dentrites

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70
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
Blurt the structure

A

Label a diagram

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71
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
Function of the cell body of the neuron

A

Contains the nucleus which houses genetic information for the cell

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72
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
Functions of dentrite

A

Carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons towards the cell body

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73
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What the function of the axon

A

Carries the impulses away from cell body down length no the neuron

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74
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
Function of myelin sheath

A

Fatty layer that covers axon
Protects axon
Speeds up electrical transmission

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75
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
Function of nodes of ranvier

A

Breaks in myelin sheath
Speed up the transmission of the impulse by forcing it to jump across the axon

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76
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
Function of the axon terminal

A

End of thr axon
Nerve impulse become chemical message to be passed onto post synaptic neuron

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77
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What is the neuron in resting state when compared to the outside

A

Negatively charged

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78
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What happens when a neuron is activated by a stimulus for a split second

A

Inside of cell becomes positively charged

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79
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What does the inside of the cell becoming positively charged for a spilt second cause

A

An action potential to occur which creates an electrical impulse that travels down the axon to the end of the neuron

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80
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What is an action potential

A

A rapid change in charge across the axon that occurs when the neuron is firing

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81
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What is synaptic transmission

A

Process of transmitting chemical messages from neuron to neuron across the synaptic gap

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82
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What s the synapse

A

Gap between neurons

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83
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What happens at the start of synaptic transmission

A

Electrical nerve impulse travels down the neuron and prompt the release of neurotransmitters at the presynaptic terminal

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84
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
Where are neurotransmitters released from and into

A

Released form synaptic vesicles across the synapse to receptors

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85
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What do the receptors do

A

Covert to an electrical impulse to travel down post synaptic neuron

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86
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
6 marks exam answer to describe the process of synaptic transmission

A

-Electrical impulses (action potentials) reach the presynaptic terminal
-Electrical impulses (action potentials) trigger release of neurotransmitters in the presynaptic neuron
-Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft from the vesicle
-Neurotransmitters combine with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
-Stimulation of the postsynaptic receptors by neurotransmitters result in either excitation or inhibition of the postsynaptic neuron
-Unused neurotransmitter molecules are absorbed back into the presynaptic neuron to be reused

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87
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What happens to unused transmitter molecules and what’s this called

A

Absorbed back into the presynaptic neuron to be reused
Reuptake

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88
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What does reuptake regulate

A

Amount of neurotransmitters in the synapse and how much message their is

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89
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What’s different about each neurotransmitter

A

There’s several dozen types which have been identifies and each has its own specific molecular structure that fits perfectly into the post synaptic receptor site (like lock and key)

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90
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What has to happen for the message to be passed on

A

Neurotransmitters have to fit into the receptor on the next neuron

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91
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
Example of specialist function for neurotransmitter

A

Acetylcholine (ACh)
Stimulates muscle contraction and is key function motor control and movement

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92
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What are all neurotransmitters either

A

Excitatory or inhibitory effect of the neighbouring neurone (most can be both but GABA is purely inhibitory)

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93
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What does it mean is the neurotransmitters are excitatory

A

The post synaptic neuron is more likely to fire and impulse

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94
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
Why is the neurotransmitter adrenaline excitatory

A

Causes excitation of the post synaptic neuron by increasing its positive charge and making it more likely to fire

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95
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What does it mean if the neurotransmitter is inhibitory

A

The post synaptic neuron is less likely to fire and impulse

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96
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
Why is the neurotransmitter serotonin inhibitory

A

Causes inhibition in the receiving neuron( neuron becomes more negatively charged and less likely to fire )

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97
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
What is true of the excitatory and inhibitory potentillas

A

They’re summed together
If the net effect on the post synaptic neuron is inhibitory, the neuron will be less likely to fire and if the net effect is excitatory the neuron will be more likely to fire

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98
Q

Structure and functions of neurons
Why is synaptic transmission only in one direction

A

Synaptic vesicle are only present from the presynaptic neuron and the receptors are only present on the post synaptic neuron

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99
Q

Localisation of function
What happened in 1848 and what did it lead to

A

Phineas gage had an accident resulting in a rod going through his face and out of his head it lead to greater understanding of the brain structure

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100
Q

Localisation of function
What is the holistic theory

A

Scientists used to support this and it was that all parts of the brain were involved in the processing of thought and action

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101
Q

Localisation of function
What is localisation of function

A

Specific parts of the brain associated with specific functions and ifferent parts of the brain performing different tasks and are involved with different part of the body

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102
Q

Localisation of function
What happens if a certain are of brain bets damaged

A

Function associated with that area will be affected

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103
Q

Localisation of function
How many lobes is the brain made of

A

4

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104
Q

Localisation of function
What 4 lobes is the brain made from

A

Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occiptal

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105
Q

Localisation of function
Where is the frontal lobe

A

Front of the brain

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106
Q

Localisation of function
Where is the parietal lobe

A

At the top in middle

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107
Q

Localisation of function
Where is the temporal lobe

A

At the bottom in middle

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108
Q

Localisation of function
Where is the occipital lobe

A

At the back of the brain

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109
Q

Localisation of function
What is the cerebral cortex

A

Outer layer of both hemispheres

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110
Q

Localisation of function
How thick is the cerebral cortex

A

3mm

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111
Q

Localisation of function
What does the human cortex being develo mean

A

Separates humans from other animals

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112
Q

Localisation of function
Appearance of cerebral cortex

A

Grey

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113
Q

Localisation of function
What’s re the lobes named after

A

Bones which they lie beneath

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114
Q

Localisation of function
What is each lobe associated with

A

Different functions

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115
Q

Localisation of function
Where is the motor cortex

A

Back of the frontal lobe in both hemispheres

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116
Q

Localisation of function
What does they motor cortex do

A

Controls movement in opposite side of body
Sends messages to the muscles via the brain stem and spinal cord
Important for complex movements and not basic actions

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117
Q

Localisation of function
What do the areas within the motor cortex do

A

Control specific body parts

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118
Q

Localisation of function
What would happen is there was damage to the motor cortex

A

May result in a loss over fine movements

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119
Q

Localisation of function
Where is the somatosensory cortex

A

Front of both parietal lobes in both hemispheres

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120
Q

Localisation of function
What does the somatosensory cortex lay next to in the brain

A

The motor cortex

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121
Q

Localisation of function
What does the somatosensory cortex do

A

Sensation of the old
Where sensory information from the skin eg to such heat and pain is represented and processed

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122
Q

Localisation of function
How does the area devoted to a certain body part in the somatosensory cortex affect it and example

A

Larger area devoted tot he body part the more sensitive
Eg receptors for face and hands occupy over half of the somatosensory cortex

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123
Q

Localisation of function
Where is the visual cortex

A

Found in the occipital cortex one in each cortex

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124
Q

Localisation of function
What is the visual cortex

A

Main visual centre

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125
Q

Localisation of function
What does the visual cortex do

A

Process visual information such as colour and shape
Each eye sends information from the right visual field to the left visual cortex and vice versa

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126
Q

Localisation of function
For the visual cortex what can happen if there’s damage to the left hemisphere

A

Produce blindness in part of the right visual field of both eyes

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127
Q

Localisation of function
What does area VI seem necessary for and what does damage to this are mean

A

Necessary for visual perception
Damage to this are reported no vision of any kind: conscious vision, visual imagery while awake or in dreams

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128
Q

Localisation of function
Where is the auditory cortex

A

In front of temporal lobe in both hemispheres

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129
Q

Localisation of function
What does the auditory cortex do

A

Analyses speech based information
Processes information such as pitch and volume

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130
Q

Localisation of function
What might damage to the auditory cortex produce

A

Partial hearing loss and the more extensive the damage the more extensive the loss of hearing

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131
Q

Localisation of function
Where is Broca’s area

A

Bottom of the frontal lobs only in left hemisphere

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132
Q

Localisation of function
What side is the language area and how do you remember

A

On left side
L eft = L anguage

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133
Q

Localisation of function
When and what did Paul broca identify

A

Small area in left frontal lobe responsible for speech production

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134
Q

Localisation of function
What does damage to the Broca’s area cause

A

Brocas aphasia

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135
Q

Localisation of function
Symptoms of brocas aphasia

A

Speech is slow laborious and lacks fluency

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136
Q

Localisation of function
Where is Wernicke’s area

A

Top of temporal lobe only in left hemisphere

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137
Q

Localisation of function

What did Karl wernicke identify

A

Area as being responsible for language comprehension

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138
Q

Localisation of function
What does damage to wernickes area result in

A

Wernickes aphasia

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139
Q

Localisation of function
Symptoms of wernickes area

A

Patients often produce nonsense words that was fluent but meaningless

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140
Q

Lateralisation of function
What is hemisphere lateralisation

A

Idea that both hemispheres are functionly different and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other

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141
Q

Lateralisation of function
Which side does each hemisphere control

A

Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body and visual field

142
Q

Lateralisation of function
If a function is dealt with by one hemisphere what is it said to be

A

Lateralised

143
Q

Lateralisation of function
Examples of left hemisphere functions

A

Analytic thought
Logic
Language
Reasoning
Science and math
Written
Number skills
Right handed control

144
Q

Lateralisation of function
Right hemisphere functions

A

Art awareness
Creativity
Imagination
Intuition
Insight
Left hand control

145
Q

Lateralisation of function
Where is language processed for most people

A

Left hemisphere

146
Q

Lateralisation of function
Language impact if stroke on left side of brain

A

Speech is affected

147
Q

Lateralisation of function
What is language subject to

A

Hemisphere lateralisation

148
Q

Lateralisation of function
Important functions of right hemisphere

A

Dominant for recognising emotions in other
Deals with spatial information
Drawling ability

149
Q

Lateralisation of function
Key focus for right hemisphere

A

Appears dominant in terms of recognising faces

150
Q

Lateralisation of function
What is the corpus callosum

A

Section that joins the two hemispheres

151
Q

Lateralisation of function
What happens in the corpus callosum

A

Messages travelling between two hemispheres pas through

152
Q

Lateralisation of function
What happens if the corpus callosum is damaged

A

Two hemispheres cannot communicate

153
Q

Lateralisation of function
Who did split brain research

A

Sperry (1968)

154
Q

Lateralisation of function
Who did sperry do split brain research on

A

Group of individuals who had their corpus callosum severed to control there epilepsy

155
Q

Lateralisation of function
What has split brain research been useful in

A

Understanding the role of each hemisphere and the extent to which they’re lateralised

156
Q

Lateralisation of function
Method for split brain research

A
  1. Patient with severed corpus callosum stares at fixed dot in screen
  2. Image or word projected to patent its right visual field (processed by the left hemisphere) or to patients left visual field (processed in right hemisphere )
  3. Patient asked to describe what saw and if court draw it or touch the object.
157
Q

Lateralisation of function
Key finding for split brain research in describing what the patients saw

A

When shown in patients right visual field, patient could easily describe what they saw but if shown in left visual field patient could not describe what was seem and typically reported there was nothing there
Shows language mainly in left hemisphere

158
Q

Lateralisation of function
Key findings for split brain research in the left visual field

A

Although patients wouldn’t be able to verbally recall the object seen, they were able to close there eyes and raw it with there left hand or select a matching object from behind the screen

159
Q

Lateralisation of function
Evaluation of split brain research
2 strengths

A

Reliability
Applicability

160
Q

Lateralisation of function
Evaluation of split brain research
Reliability

A

Highly standardised procedure in lab
Replication is possible and obtain same results

161
Q

Lateralisation of function
Evaluation of split brain research
applicability

A

Produced impressive and sizeable body of research innings
Equipment and procedure enabled the findings of the two heliospheres to be studs in ways which weren’t possible before
Eg left hemisphere is language
More we understand about how our brain is lateralised the more we can help those with brain damage

162
Q

Lateralisation of function
Evaluation of split brain research
Two weaknesses

A

Generalisability
Validity

163
Q

Lateralisation of function
Evaluation of split brain research
Generalisability

A

Split brain patient unusual and only small sample of people
Only 11 participant took part in all vaioration sof study
All had history of epileptic seizures
As split brain patients are very rare may be difficult to find larger sample and therefore hard to generalise to whole populations

164
Q

Lateralisation of function
Evaluation of split brain research
Validity

A

Low ecological validity as techniques very artificial
Data was artificially produced in a real life situation information would be entering both eyes and therefore the person is able to compensate for having no corpus calllosum to transfer information across the hemispheres

165
Q

Localisation and lateralisation evaluation
Evidence for localisation

A

Tulving et al (1994)
Unique cases of neurological damage

166
Q

Localisation and lateralisation evaluation
Tulving eg al evidence for localisation

A

Conducted study of long term memory
Revealed that semantic and episodic memories reside in different part of the prefrontal cortex
Suggest they these area do the brain have different functions
This supports that the idea that many neurological functions are localised

167
Q

Localisation and lateralisation evaluation
Unique cases of neurological damage for localisation

A

Phineas cage suffered an accident in which a tamping iron took out a portion of his frontal lobe which resulted in a dramatic change in his personality
This case supports localisation theory as it suggests the frontal lobe may be responsible for regulating mood

168
Q

Localisation and lateralisation evaluation
Evidence for lateralisation

A

Heller and levy (1981)
Sperry(1968)

169
Q

Localisation and lateralisation evaluation
Heller and levy (1981) for lateralisation

A

Found that is a photo of a face is split so that each half is either smiling or neutral is shown to someone the emotion displayed on the left hand side of the picture is the emotion recognised by the participant
Suggest right hempisher seem to be particularly dominant for recognising emotions in other and highlight that the left visual field is processes by right hemisphere
Therefore evidence for lateralisation

170
Q

Localisation and lateralisation evaluation
Sperry (1981 for lateralisation

A

Split brainresearch

171
Q

Localisation and lateralisation evaluation
Evidence against lateralisation and localisation
Brain plasticity

A

In sense that when brain is damaged and particular function is lost, rest of brain seems to reorganise itself and try to recover lost function
Several documented cases of stroke victims recovering lost abilities
Against local and lateral bc same neurological action can be achieved even though the area of the brain responsible for the function has been damaged

172
Q

Localisation and lateralisation evaluation
Danelli et al (2013) against localisation and lateralisation

A

Reported case of a body who had virtually had all his left hemisphere re,over and managed to regain all most all of his language skills
Implies no localisation or lateralisation

173
Q

Brain plasticity
What is it

A

Brain has the ability to change throughout life

174
Q

Brain plasticity
Wnat happens to the brain during infancy

A

Experiences a rapid growth in the number of synaptic connections

175
Q

Brain plasticity
What happens to the brain at 2-3 years old

A

Peaks at 15000 number of synaptic growth

176
Q

Brain plasticity
What synaptic pruning

A

As we age rarely used synaptic connections are deleted and frequently used connections are strengthened

177
Q

Brain plasticity
Does it happens in childhood and adulthood

A

Used to be thought was restricted to developing brain in childhood and believed the adult brain would remain fixed and static in terms of function and structure by research suggest at any time neural connections can change or new connections can be formed as a result of learning and experience

178
Q

Brain plasticity
What factors can result in our brains changing

A

Occupation
Learning experience
Pastimes and hobbies
Drug use

179
Q

Brain plasticity
What is functional recovery

A

Form of neural plasticity following physical injury or damage through trauma where the brain is able to redistribute or transfer functions and in healthy brains areas may take over functions

180
Q

Brain plasticity
What the timeline of functional recovery

A

Process can occur quickly after trauma (spontaneous recover) then slow down after weeks/months

181
Q

Brain plasticity
What may be needed after functional recover

A

Rehabilitative therapy

182
Q

Brain plasticity
What happens in the brain during functional recovery

A

Brain is able to retire and reorganise itself by forming new synaptic connects close to the area of damage
Secondary neural pathways that would not typically used to carry out certain functions are activated or unmasked to enable functioning to continue

183
Q

Brain plasticity
What structural changes can occur in the brain

A

Axon sprouting
Recruitment of similar areas on the opposite side of the brain
Denervation supersensitivity

184
Q

Brain plasticity
What is axon sprouting

A

Growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways

185
Q

Brain plasticity
Why can axon sprouting happen

A

When an axon is damaged its connections with a neighbouring neuron is lost
Helps replace a function

186
Q

Brain plasticity
When does axon sprouting only happen

A

Only if damaged axon and compensatory axon do similar jobs (otherwise problems may occur)

187
Q

Brain plasticity
Example of recruitment of similar areas on opposite side of the brain

A

If Broca’s area is damages on left side right side equivalent will carry out its functions

188
Q

Brain plasticity
What denervation super sensitivity

A

Occurs when axons aroused to a higher level to compensate for the ones lost

189
Q

Brain plasticity
What can denervation super sensitivity cause

A

Over sensitivity to messages such as pain which can increase pain levels

190
Q

Brain plasticity
What factors affect functional recovery

A

Perseverance
Physical exhaustion, stress and alcohol consumption
Age
Gender

191
Q

Brain plasticity
How does perseverance affect functional plasticity

A

Function may appear t be lost but this may be because the individual believes its unrecoverable and therefore doesn’t try

192
Q

Brain plasticity
Perseverance affect on functional recover example

A

Research shows when a monkey has a ‘deafferented’ limb (lost its sensory input) it will try not to use it
If functioning in other limb becomes damaged it has no option but to use it
Motor nerves are still connected to the limb but the sensory nerve damaged means the monkey doesn’t feel as if it can move the limb

193
Q

Brain plasticity
How does physical exhaustion stress an alcohol consumption affect functional recovery

A

When a function is recovered the function is used with considerable effort
May be fatigued by the effort

194
Q

Brain plasticity
How does age affect functional recovery

A

Deterioration of the brain in old age affects extent and speed of recovery

195
Q

Brain plasticity
Age affecting functional recovery example

A

Older patient (40+) gain less function compared to a young brain eg danelli et al (2013)

196
Q

Brain plasticity
Gender affect of functional recovery

A

Research suggest women recover better from brain injury as their function is not as lateralised
However research is mixed so conclusions are unclear

197
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
strength

A

Practical application

198
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Practical application
What has understanding the process involved in plasticity contributed to

A

Field of neurorehabilitation

199
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Practical application \
What do we now understand about spontaneous recovery

A

Tend to slow down after a number of weeks so forms of physical therapy may be required to maintain improvements in functioning

200
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Why is it a strength

A

Electrical stimulation of the brain may also be needed to counter the deficits in motor/cognitive functioning after a stroke.
This shows that although the brain has the ability to ‘fix itself’ to a point, this process requires further intervention to be completely successful.
The more we understand about this, the more effectively we can help those who need

201
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Weaknesses

A

Factors affecting recovery
Validity of findings

202
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Factors affecting recovery

A

The ability of the brain to recover varies according to the extent of the damage, the location of the damage, and the individual.
For this reason, each case varies and generalisations are difficult to make from case studies

203
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Validity of findings

A

In some cases there is no record of functioning level prior to the trauma
It is therefore difficult to know the extent to which the brain has recovered to pre-trauma levels.
This inability to come to firm conclusions lowers validity

204
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Functional recovery case study

A

Danelli et al (2013)

205
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Denelli et al (2013) story

A

At 2 ½ years old a boy had a large benign tumour removed from his left hemisphere (virtually all his left hemisphere was removed)
Lost all linguistic abilities
After intensive rehabilitation, language abilities started to improve at around 5yrs old
Over next 3 years they continued to improve until there were no language problems
At age 17, he had virtually the same level of language abilities as ‘normal’ controls

206
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Denelli et al (2013) results as plasticity

A

Seems that the right hemisphere had compensated for loss of left hemisphere (although there were still minor grammatical problems)
Shows functional recovery – the brain’s ability to redistribute or transfer functions
This is a form of plasticity

207
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
research support for plasticity

A

Mechelli et al (2004)

208
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Mechelli et al (2004)
Research and results

A

Found a larger parietal cortex in the brains of people who were bilingual compared to matched monolingual controls
Suggests that this specific type of learning has led to changes in brain structure, demonstrating neural plasticity.

209
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Age and plasticity research

A

Bezzola et al (2012

210
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Bezzola et al (2012) research

A

Participants 40-60 year olds
40 hours of golf training
Used fMRI scans
Observed reduced motor cortex activity in novice golfers compared to a control group

211
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Bezzola et al (2012) results

A

Shows that neural plasticity does continue through the lifespan (not just younger people as they learn and gain new experiences)

212
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Negative plasticity research example

A

Medina et al (2007)

213
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Medina et al 2007 research

A

Prolonged drug use was shown to result in poorer cognitive functioning, as well as an increased risk of dementia later in life

214
Q

Brain plasticity evaluation
Medina et al 2007 results

A

Demonstrated how the brain’s ability to rewire itself can sometimes have maladaptive behavioural consequences

215
Q

Studying the brain
What are the 4 ways

A

fMRIs
EEGs
ERPs
Post marten examinations

216
Q

Studying the brain
How do fMRIs work

A

Use magnetic field and radio waves to detect the changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occurs as a result of brain activity in specific parts of the brain

217
Q

Studying the brain
FMRIs
What happens when a brain area is more active

A

Consumes more oxygen and to meet this increase in demand blood flow is directed to this active area

218
Q

Studying the brain
What does fMRIS show from being in 3D

A

Shows which park of the brain are involved in a particular mental process

219
Q

Studying the brain
What are fMRIS important for

A

Understanding localisation of function

220
Q

Studying the brain ]
Strengths of fMRIs

A

Doesn’t rely on radiation
Virtually risk free, non invasive and straightforward to use
Produces opiates with height spatial resolution depicting detail by millimetre
Provided a clear picture of how brain activity is localised
Unlike post more them allows active brain to be investigates during specific activities/ tasks
Captures dynamic brain activity as opposed to post morgen which shows purely physiology

221
Q

Studying the brain
fMRIs weaknesses

A

Expensive compared to other neuroimaging techniques leading to small sample sizes reduced the validity of studies
Can only capture a clear image if person is completely still
Poor temporal resolution with around 5 second lag time behind image on screen and initial firing of brain activity
Can only measure blood flow in brain cannot home in on activity of individual neurons
fMRIs data is complex and can be open to interpretation
Unlike ERPs provide and indirect measure of neural activity

222
Q

Studying the brain
What is the post mortem technique

A

Involves the analysis of a persons brain following death

223
Q

Studying the brain
What is person having postmortem likely to have

A

Have had rare disorder or experienced unusual deficit in mental processes

224
Q

Studying the brain
Why are areas of damage examined after death

A

Establish likely cause of afflictions and may compare to neurotypical brain to ascertain extent of difference

225
Q

Studying the brain
Post mortem strengths

A

Evidence from post mortem was vital in providing a foundation for early understanding of key processes on the brain
Broca and Wernicke both relied on post-mortem studies to establish links between language, brain and behaviour evades before neuro-imaging became possible
Post-mortems improve medical knowledge and help generate hypotheses for future studies
Post mortem examinations enable deeper regions of the brain to be investigated than non-invasive techniques

226
Q

Studying the brain
Post mortem weaknesses

A

Causation is an issue with these investigations –observed damage to the brain may not be linked to the deficits under review, but some other unrelated trauma or decay
Post mortem scan be affected by changes which occur during/after death
Requires special permissions to be conducted, which often leads to small sample sizes
Post-mortems raise ethical issues of consent from the patient before death. Patients may not be able to provide informed consent e.g. the case of HM who lost his ability to form memories and was not able to provide such consent. Nevertheless post mortem research has been conducted on his brain.
Shows purely physiology as opposed to fMRIs which captures dynamic brain activity

227
Q

Studying the brain
How does an eeg work

A

Measure electrical activity within the brain via electrodes fixed to the scalp using a skull cap
Detect neuronal activity directly where the electrodes are placed

228
Q

Studying the brain
What does the scan represent on an EEG

A

Represent the brainwave patterns that are generated from the section of millions of neurons providing an overall account of brain activity

229
Q

Studying the brain
When are EEGs often used

A

By clinicians as a diagnostic tool as unusual a rhythmic patterns of activity may indicate neurological abnormalities

230
Q

Studying the brain
EEGs strengths

A

EEGs have proved invaluable in the diagnosis of conditions such a epilepsy, a disorder characterised by random bursts of activity in the brain that can easily be detected on screen
It has contributed much to our understanding of the stages involved in sleep
Unlike fMRIs, EEG technology has extremely high temporal resolution (time lag is not an issue). Today’s EEG technology can accurately detect brain activity at a resolution of a single millisecond (and even less in some cases
EEGs are cheaper than fMRIs so larger samples can be used which can increase the validity of the data obtained
Unlike post mortems, allows active brain to be investigated during specific activities/tasks

231
Q

Studying the brain
EEG weaknesses

A

Main drawback of EEGs lie in the generalised nature of the information received (that of many thousands of neurons).
EEGs have poorer spatial resolution than fMRIs
The EEG signal is not useful for pinpointing the exact source of neural activity and does not allow researchers to distinguish between activities originating in different but adjacent locations.

232
Q

Studying the brain
What are ERPS

A

Use same apparatus as EEGs but record activity of activity as a stimulus from researcher

233
Q

Studying the brain
EEG compared to ERP

A

EEGs in their raw form are a crude and overly general measure of brain activity. However within EEG data are all the neural responses associated with different events may be of interest to cognitive neuroscientists

Researchers have developed a way of teasing out and isolating their responses
Using a statistical averaging technique, all extraneous brain activity from the original EEG recording is filtered out, leaving only those responses that relate to e.g. presentation of a specific stimulus or performance of specific task
What remains are ERPs: types of brainwaves triggered by particular events

234
Q

Studying the brain
ERP strengths

A

ERPs bring much more specificity to the measurement of neural processes than could ever be achieved using raw EEG data.
As ERPs are derived from EEG data, they too have excellent temporal resolution which has led to their widespread use in the measurement of cognitive functions and deficits
Researchers have been able to identify many different types of ERP and describe the precise role of these in cognitive functioning
ERPs are cheaper than fMRIs so larger samples can be used which can increase the validity of the data obtained
Unlike post mortems, allows active brain to be investigated during specific activities/tasks
Unlike fMRIs, provide direct measure of neural activity

235
Q

Studying the brain
ERP weaknesses

A

There is a lack of standardisation in ERP methodology between different research studies which makes it difficult to confirm findings
In order to establish pure data in ERP studies, background noise and extraneous material must be completely eliminated, and this may not always be easy to achieve.
ERPs have poorer spatial resolution than fMRIs

236
Q

Biological rhythms
What are the three types

A

Ultradium rhythms
Circadium rhythms
Infradian rhythms

237
Q

Biological rhythms
What are ultradium rhythms and example

A

Last less than 24 hours eg stages of sleep

238
Q

Biological rhythms
What are circadian rhythms and example

A

Last 24 hours eg sleep/wake cycle

239
Q

Biological rhythms
What are infradium rhythms and example

A

Last more than 24 hours
Eg menstrual cycle

240
Q

Biological rhythms
What are biological rhythms

A

Distinct patterns of changes in body activity which conform to cyclical time periods

241
Q

Biological rhythms
What are biological rhythms influenced by

A

Internal body clock and changes to the external environment

242
Q

Biological rhythms
What have biological rhythms

A

All living organisms plants animals and people are subject to biological rhythms and these exert important influence n the ways in which the body systems behave

243
Q

Biological rhythms ]
What are all biological rhythms regulated and governed by

A

Endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers

244
Q

Biological rhythms
What are endogenous pacemakers and example

A

Body’s internal biological clock
Mechanisms within the body that govern the internal biological bodily rhythms
Eg Suprachiasmatic nucleus

245
Q

Biological rhythms
what are exogenous zeitgebers and example

A

Environmental cue such that helps to regulate the biological clock in an organisms
Eg light and sound

246
Q

Biological rhythms
What type fo rhythm is the sleep wake cycle

A

Circadian

247
Q

Biological rhythms
What is the sleep wake cycle and what does it demonstrate

A

Feeling drowsy at night time and alert during the day
Demonstrates effect of daylight as an important zeitgebers

248
Q

Biological rhythms
Studies of sleep wake circadium rhythms

A

Siffres cave study
Aschoff and Wever (1976) NOT LEARNING

249
Q

Biological rhythms
What was Siffres cave study

A

Siffre spent several extended periods of time underground to study effects on own biological rhythms
Deprived of exposure to natural light or cues as to time or day but had all supplies such as food
Artificial light

250
Q

Biological rhythms
Findings from Siffres cave study

A

Biological rhythms just longer than usual 24 hours (25-30 hours )
Continued to fall asleep and wake up on regular schedule
Lost track of how m,any days he spent in the cave as he thought it was one month less

251
Q

Biological rhythms
Results from Siffres cave study

A

Suggests natural sleep wake cycle may be slightly longer than 24 hours
Natural light sources in the environment are vital for keeping the individual to a 24 hour cycle
Natural sleep wake cycle is adjusted by exogenous zeitgebers associated with put 24 hour day eg daylight and meal times

252
Q

Biological rhythms
Aschoff wever (1976) study

A

Convinced a group of participants to spend four weeks in a WW2 bunker deprived of natural light
All but one of the participants (whose sleep/wake cycle extended to 29 hours) displayed a circadian rhythm between 24 and 25 hours
suggests the ‘natural’ sleep/wake cycle may be slightly longer than 24 hours but is entrained (adjusted) by exogenous zeitgebers associated with the 24-hour day (daylight/mealtimes etc)

253
Q

Biological rhythms
What is the Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A

Primary endogenous pacemaker which is influential in maintaining circadian rhythms
Tiny bundle of nerves located in the hypothalamus

254
Q

Biological rhythms
SCN role in sleeep wake cycle

A

Receives information about light even when eyes closed
enables our biological clock to adjust to changing patterns of daylight even when we sleep
The SCN passes information on day length and light that it receives to the pineal gland
During the night, the pineal gland increases production of melatonin

255
Q

Biological rhythms
What is melatonin and what ha it been suggested as a factor

A

Chemical that induced sleep and is inhibited during periods of wakefulness
Suggested as a causal factor in seasonal affective disorder

256
Q

Biological rhythms
Is the SCN found in animals and why has this facilitated research into the SCNs role

A

Yes
Human research would be difficult and u ethical
Argued generalisation can be made from animals to human

257
Q

Biological rhythms
Research into endogenous pacemakers

A

Decoursey et al (2000)
Ralph et al (1990)

258
Q

Biological rhythms
What was Decoursey eat al (2000) research

A

Destroyed SCN connections in the brain of 30 chipmunks and were returned to their natural habitat observed for 80 days

259
Q

Biological rhythms
Fundings for Decoursey et L (2000)

A

Sleep wake cycle disappeared and by the end of the study a significant portion has been killed by predators
Chipmunks were awake and vulnerable t attack when they should’ve been attacked
Emphasises role of SCN in establishing and maintaining the circadian sleep wake cycle

260
Q

Biological rhythms
Ralph et al (1990) what

A

Removed SCN out of genetically abnormal hamsters which has 20 hour circadian rhythms and transplanted them into normal rats

261
Q

Biological rhythms
Ralph et al (1990) findings

A

After transplant circadian rhythms of normal rats shortened to 20 hours
Suggest SCN is pivotal in regulating the internal body clock

262
Q

Biological rhythms
How do exogenous zeitgebers work with pacemakers

A

Are a cue for endogenous pacemakers
Help regulate the body clock to the individual is synchronised with the environment

263
Q

Biological rhythms
Examples of exogenous zeitgebers

A

Noise, light seasons

264
Q

Biological rhythms
What entrainment

A

When there’s an adjustment of the body clock in line with three environment (biological clocks reset)

265
Q

Biological rhythms
Light as an exogenous zeitgebers

A

Key in humans
Resets body’s main pacemaker SCN
Can have an indirect influence on key processes in body controlling hormone secretion and blood circulation

266
Q

Biological rhythms
Social cues as exogenous zeitgebers

A

At 6 weeks baby’s circadian rhythm begins
At 16 weeks most babies are entrained
Schedules imposed by parents eg mealtime and bed times help this
Research suggest that adapting to local times for eating and sleeping is effective way of entraining circadian rhythms and beating jet lag

267
Q

Biological rhythms
Research for exogenous zeitgebers

A

Campbell and Murphy (1998)

268
Q

Biological rhythms
What Campbell and Murphy (1998)

A

Monitored temperature of 15 Volunteers who slept in a lab
Shone a beam log light onto the back of their knees during the night at a series of intervals

269
Q

Biological rhythms
Findings of Campbell and Murphy (1998)

A

Circadian rhythms disrupted by up to three hours
Shows not necessary for Leighton to just enter the eyes to have a physiological effect of biological rhythms

270
Q

Circadian rhythms
2 strengths

A

Shift work
Drug treatment timing

271
Q

Circadian rhythms
Strength -shift work
What has knowledge of circadian rhythm given us better understanding of

A

Adverse consequences of their disruption (desynchronisation)

272
Q

Circadian rhythms
Strength -shift work
Impact of night shift workers

A

Experience a reduced concentration around 6 in the morning so mistakes or accidents are more likely to happen

273
Q

Circadian rhythms
Strength -shift work

What has research shown for shift work

A

Shows link between shift work and poor health (3x more like to develop heart disease
Perhaps due to stress of adjust sleep wake cycle an poor quality sleep during the day

274
Q

Circadian rhythms
Strength -shift work
Why is this a strength

A

Research shows sleep wake cycle may have economic implication of how to bets man are worker productivity

275
Q

Circadian rhythms
Strength -drug treatment timing
Why does timing matter in re;action to circadian rhythm

A

Circadian rhythms coordinate a number of the body’s basic processes eg heart rate digestion or hormone levels which affects the action of drugs on the body and how well they’re absorbed or distributed

276
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
2 strengths

A

Shift work
Drug treatments

277
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Strength shift work
How has this come from research of circadian rhythms

A

Knowledge has given us better understanding of adverse consequences of disruption (desynchronisation)

278
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Strength shift work
Impact of shift work

A

Experience period of reduced concentration around 6 in the morning so ore likely for accidents and mistakes
Research also shows link between shift wrk and poor health (3 times more likely to develop heart disease)

279
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Strength shift work
Why is this a strength

A

Research may have economic implications to best manage worker productivity’s

280
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Strength drug treatment
What body’s basic processes dies circadian rhythms control and why is this important

A

Heart rate digestion and hormone levels
Affects action of drugs on the body and how well they’re absorbed or distributed

281
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Strength drug treatment
What have been developed in relation to circadian rhythms

A

drug treatment guidelines to do with the timing of drug dosing for medication eg anti cancer or epileptic drugs

282
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Strength drug treatment
Why is this a strength

A

More we understand about biological rhythms and drugs the more effectively we can treat pep;e

283
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
What else can you use as supporting evidence

A

Research eg recourses or Campbell and Murphy

284
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
2 weakness

A

Validity
Generalisability

285
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Validity
Why might it not be valid in how research is done

A

Research often carried out in artificial conditions resulting in artificial behaviour

286
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Validity
Investigating sleep

A

Monitoring sleep can also have an effect on the sleep patterns of the participant. The sleep patterns recorded could therefore be a by-product of being monitored (not the effect of the zeitgeber or pacemaker)

287
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Validity
Poor control example

A

Eg siffre still had access to artificial light in the cave which may affect his biological clock

288
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Validity
Why is this a weakness

A

Less certain that IV affected the DV

289
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Validity
Why might the research not be generalisable

A

Animals used in research
Using case studies and small samples

290
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Validity
Why does using animals in research affect the generalisability

A

Clear physiological differences which may in turn make generalising to humans problematic

291
Q

Circadian rhythms ao3
Validity
Why dos using case studies and Small samples make generalising hard

A

People involved may not be repressive of the wider population which limits the etxent to which meaningful generalisation can be mad e

292
Q

Ultradian rhythms
How long are they

A

Last less than 24 hours

293
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Example

A

Stages of sleep / sleep cycle

294
Q

Ultradian rhythms
How many stages of sleep is there and how long approximately is each cycle

A

5
90 minutes

295
Q

Ultradian rhythms
What is each sleep stage characterised by

A

A different level of brainwave activity

296
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Which method of investigating would be used for sleep stages

A

EEG

297
Q

Ultradian rhythms
What happens if we don’t get enough sleep

A

Sleep deprivation

298
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Consequences of sleep deprivation

A

Memory and attention problems
Increased risk of motor vehicle acccidnts
Weakening of immune system
Increase in BMI due to increased appetite
Increased risk for depression and substance abuse
Increased risk for diabetes and heart problems

299
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Case study for sleep deprivation

A

In 1965 student randy Gardner stayed awake for 11 days and 24 minutes

300
Q

Ultradian rhythms
What happened to Andy Gardner

A

After two days of zero sleep, Gardner’s eyes struggled to remain focussed, he showed some signs of ataxia - an inability to repeat simple tongue twisters - and he found it difficult to identify objects based purely on touch

By day three, he became moody and uncoordinated, and by day five he started hallucinating

From there he experienced trouble concentrating, forming short-term memories, and became paranoid, and irritable

301
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Why is it a bad idea to not sleep

A

While Gardner ended up recovering from the experiment with no discernible long-term physical and mental defects, the rest of us might not be so lucky
A lot of us are trying to sustain ourselves on less sleep than our bodies need, and over several years, the health effects can be very serious.

302
Q

Ultradian rhythms
How long is sleep stage 1 and what wave type

A

Varies between 5 and 15 min
Alpha waves (slower and rhythmic) THEN THETA WAVES (EVEN SLOWER)

303
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Activity and effects of sleep stage 1

A

Light sleep easily woken heart rate slows and muscles relax

304
Q

Ultradian rhythms
How long is sleep stage 2 and wave type

A

Varies between 5and 15 mins
Alpha waves (slower and more rhythmic ) then theta waves (even slower)

305
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Activity and effects of stage sleep 2

A

Body continues to relax still easy to wake sleep spindles

306
Q

Ultradian rhythms
How long is stage 3 sleep and wave type

A

Between 5 and 15 mins
Delta waves ( slower with greater amplitude )

307
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Activity and effects fo sleep stage 3

A

Deep sleep difficult to wake and less sleep spindles

308
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Length and wave type of stage sleep 4

A

40 mins
Delta waves (slower with greater amplitude )

309
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Activity and effects of sleeep stage 4

A

Deep sleep difficult to wake and less sleep spindles

310
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Length and wave type of sleep stage 5 (REM sleeo)

A

15 mins initially and lengthens throughout the night with less Tim spent in other stages
Mixed frequency brain waves

311
Q

Ultradian rhythms
Activity and effects of sleep stage 5 (REM sleep)

A

Body is paralysed yet brain activity speeds up significantly (resembles the awake brain). Fast, jerky activity of the eyes under eyelids. High probability of dreaming. Irregular breathing and heart rate

312
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
Strength

A

Research evidence of dement and kleitman (1957)

313
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
What did dement and kleitman (1957( do

A

Monitored sleep patterns of 9 adults in a lab

314
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
How did kleitman and dement )1957) measure brainwave activity

A

An EEG

315
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
In dement and kleitman (1957) what did the researchers control for

A

Effects of caffeine and alcohol

316
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
What did the results of dement and kleitman (1957 show

A

REM highly correlated with the experience of dreaming h
Brain activity varied according to how vivid dreams are
Participants woken up during dreaming reported very accurate results of their dream

317
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
Outcome of the dement and kleitman (1957)

A

Suggests sleep follows typical pattern throughout the night

318
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
Problem

A

Validity

319
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
Example of problem with validity

A

Dement and kleitman (1957)

320
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
Self repot problems

A

May lie or be inaccurate

321
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
Lacking ecological validity

A

Not normal to be woken up and report dreams

322
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
Artificial setting

A

Electrodes and labs disrupt sleep so may have caused result

323
Q

Ultradian rhythms Ao3
Problems with generalisability

A

Small sample size
Limits extent to which results can be generalised

324
Q

Infradian rhythms
Length

A

Last more than 24 hours

325
Q

Infradian rhythms
Example

A

Menstural cyclen

326
Q

Infradian rhythms
What is the menstural cycle governed by

A

Monthly changes in hormone levels which regulate ovulation

327
Q

Infradian rhythms
What system is linked to the menstual cycle

A

Endocrine system

328
Q

Infradian rhythms
What does menstrual cycle refer to

A

Time betweeen first day of a woman’s period and to day before next period and takes approximately 28 days

329
Q

Infradian rhythms
Mentrua; cycle process

A

Rising levels of oestrogen cause the ovary to develop an egg and release it (ovulation)
After ovultion progesterone helps the womb lining get thicker preparing for preganancy
If pregnancy doesn’t occur, egg is absorbed into body and womb lining comes away and leaves body

330
Q

Infradian rhythms
What els impacts menstrual cycle

A

Exogenous factors such as light,odours, other women’s cycle

331
Q

Infradian rhythms
What are pheromones

A

Chemicals produced by an individual which act outside the individuals body Changing others behaviour

332
Q

Infradian rhythms
studies

A

McClintock and stern (1998)
Reinberg(1967)

333
Q

Infradian rhythms
What was the McClintock and stern (1998) study

A

Odourless compounds containing pheromones were transferred by the donor wiping. Pad on their armpit and the other women wiping the same pad on her top lip

334
Q

Infradian rhythms
Results of McClintock and stern (1998(

A

If donor was in latter half of their menstrual cycle the woman’s cycle shortened]
If donor was at beginning of cycle woman’s cycle was lengthened

335
Q

Infradian rhythms
What does the McClintock and stern (1998) study show

A

How the menstrual cycle of s woman can be altered by communication via pheromones and can synchronise

336
Q

Infradian rhythms
What was a the Reinberg (1967) study

A

Woman spent three months in a cave with only the light of a small lamp

337
Q

Infradian rhythms
Results of the Reinberg (1967 study

A

Days lengthened to 24.9 hours and menstrual cycle shortened to 25.7 days

338
Q

Infradian rhythms
What dos the Reinberg (1967 study show

A

Level of light in the cave could’ve affected the woman’s menstrual cycle
How Infradian rhythms can be influenced by external zeitgebers

339
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
2 strengths

A

Menstrual synchronicity
Evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle

340
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
What can explain menstural synchronicity

A

Effects of pheromones

341
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
Example of menstrual synchronicity

A

Groups of women lining together eg nuns have synchronised menstrual cycles

342
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
Sturdy to back menstrual synchronicity

A

McClintock and stern (1998)

343
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
2 weaknesses

A

Methodological issues
Animal studies

344
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
Methodological issues in factors

A

Many other factors eg stress diet excercise can affect menstrual cycle so may act as confounding variables

345
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
Methodological issues of sample

A

Often research has small samples

346
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
Methodological issues other studies

A

Other studies have failed to find evidence of synchronicity

347
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
Animal studies

A

Much knowledge of effects of pheromones on behaviour is derived from animal studies

348
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
What does human behaviour remain as a result of animal studies

A

Evidence for effects of uman behaviour remains speculative and inconclusive

349
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
What is unclear

A

How close women have to live together and for what period of time for menstrual synchronicity

350
Q

Infradian rhythms a03
Why are animal studies a weakness

A

Big difference between animals and humans so hard to generalise

Psychology (11 decks)

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