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Issues And Debates Flashcards

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1
Q

Free will and determinism
What does free will suggest

A

As human beings we are essentially self determining and free to choose our thoughts and actions

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2
Q

Free will and determinism
What doesn’t free will deny

A

There may be biological or environmental forces that’s may influence our behaviour but we are able to reject these forces as masters of our own destiny

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3
Q

Free will and determinism
Which approach advocates free will

A

Humanistic

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4
Q

Free will and determinism
What is determinism

A

View that an individuals behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individuals will to do something

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5
Q

Free will and determinism
What are the 5 types of determinism

A

Hard
Soft
Biological
Environmental
Psychic

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6
Q

Free will and determinism
What does hard determinism suggest

A

All human behaviour has a cause and in principe it should be possible to identify these causes and implied free will is not possible

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7
Q

Free will and determinism
What us hard determinism comparable with

A

Aims of science to uncover causal laws that govern thoughts and actions

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8
Q

Free will and determinism
What does hard determinism assume

A

Everything we think and do is dictated by internal or ext3rnal forces we cannot control

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9
Q

Free will and determinism
What is the problem about hard determinism for some people

A

Too extreme

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10
Q

Free will and determinism
What approach can be seen as hard determinism

A

Behaviourist

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11
Q

Free will and determinism
What’s soft determinism

A

Acknowledges that all human action has a cause but there’s some room for manoeuvre
People have the conscious mental control over way they believe

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12
Q

Free will and determinism
What approaches is soft determinism

A

Cognitive
Social learning theory

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13
Q

Free will and determinism
What is biological determinism

A

Behaviours and characteristics thought to have physiological or neurological basis due to processes which are not under conscious control

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14
Q

Free will and determinism
What approach has biological determinism

A

Biological

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15
Q

Free will and determinism
What is environmental determinism

A

Behaviour caused by features of environment and agents of socialisation
Experience of choice merely sum total of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us although think were acting independently

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16
Q

Free will and determinism
Which approach has environmental determinism

A

Behaviourism

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17
Q

Free will and determinism
What is psychic determinism

A

Sees human behaviour as determined an directed by unconscious conflicts we cannot control
Drives and instincts

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18
Q

Free will and determinism
Which approach has psychic determinism

A

Psychodynamic

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19
Q

Free will and determinism
What it’s important about determinism for science

A

Scientific emphasis on causal explantions

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20
Q

Free will and determinism
What is needed examine a psychological phenomenon a psychologist must do what?

A

Develop theory followed by a prediction of what might happen (hypothesis )
Use empirical methods top test hypothesis
If significant, considered to indicate that there’s causal explanation

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21
Q

Free will and determinism
How can causal factors be proved

A

If one factor changes a a behaviour in an experiment when all other factors a are controlled then the original factor must be responsible for the change

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22
Q

Free will and determinism
When can causation be established

A

If research carried out in a scientifically rigorous way

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23
Q

Free will and determinism
How is determinism and causation linked

A

Behaviour is caused (determined) by something not within the individuals control

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24
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
Strengths for determinism and against free will

A

Consistent with aims of science
Neurological studies

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25
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
How is it good for science

A

Notion that human behaviour is orderly and obeys laws places psychology on equal footing with other more established sciences

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26
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What has prediction and control of human behaviour led too

A

Development of treatments therapies and behavioural interventions that have benefited many eg to control and manage schizophrenia

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27
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What casts doubts on concept of free will

A

Experience of mental disorders like schizophrenia where sufferers experience a total loss of control over their thoughts

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28
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
Why is this a strength

A

In terms on mental illness behaviour would appear to be determined by

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29
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What are the neurological studies of and what have they revealed evidence of

A

Decision making
Evidence Against free will

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30
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
Which study

A

Chun Siong soon et al

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31
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What did chun siong soon et al demonstrate

A

That brain activity that determines the outcome of simple choices, may predate our knowledge of having made such a choice

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32
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What have researchers found

A

Activity related to whether to press a button with left or right hand occurs in brain up to ten second as before participants report being consciously aware of making a decision

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33
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What does this show

A

Even our most basic experiences of free will are decided and determined by our brain before we become aware of them

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34
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
Case for freewill an. Against determinism

A

Hard determinist stance not consistent with how legal system operates
Research support

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35
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What would happen in court of law

A

Offenders held morally accountable for actions

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36
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What would hard determinists argue

A

Individual choice is not the cause of behaviour

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37
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
How is determinism unfalsifiable

A

Based on idea that causes of behaviour will always exist even though may not have been found wrong so impossible to prove wrong

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38
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What does this suggest

A

Determinist approach to human behaviour may not be seen as scientific as it first appears

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39
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
Research support opener

A

Everyday experiences gives the impression that we are constantly excercising free will through the choices we make on any given day
Gives face value,iditly to compete of free will

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40
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What does research suggest

A

People who have internal locus of control believing that they have a high degree of influence over events and their own behaviour tend got be more mentally healthy

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41
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
Research example

A

Robert et al

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42
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What did Robert et al find

A

That adolescents with a strong belief in hard determinism, who thought their lives were decided by events outside of their control were significantly at a greater risk to develop depression

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43
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What did this suggest

A

That even f we don’t have free will the fact that we think we do may have a positive impact of mind and behaviour

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44
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What us the interactionist positions for determinism

A

Soft determinism

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45
Q

Free will and determinism AO3
What us the interactionist positions

A

May provide us with best compromise in free will determinism debate

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46
Q

Free will and determinism AO3

A
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47
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What does idiographic mean

A

Attempts to describe nature of individual

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48
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
How are people studied in idiographic research

A

As unique identities each with subjective experiences motivations and values

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49
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What data is asssociated with idiographic

A

Qualitative

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50
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What research methods would be used in idiographic

A

Case studies unstructured interviews and pother self report methods

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51
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Sample size in idiographic research

A

Very small, 1 or two people

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52
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What is idiographic research central aim

A

Describe richness of human experience and gain insight into persons unique was of viewing world

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53
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What approach show idiographic research

A

Humanism
Psychodynamic

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54
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Why is humanism idiographic

A

Roger and Maslow only interested in documenting conscious experience of individual and rather than scientifically more interested with investigating unique experiences

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55
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Why is psychodynamic approach often labbeled as idiographic

A

Use of case study method when detailing lives of his patients however Freud assumed he had identified universal laws of behaviour

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56
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What is the main aim of nomothetic research

A

Produce general laws of human behaviours and provide benchmark against which people can be compared classified and measured

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57
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What can be done as a result of general laws for behaviour from nomothetic research

A

Future behaviour can be predicted controlled or treated

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58
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What data type is associated with nomethiec research

A

Quantitative

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59
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Sample size for nomothetic research

A

Large numbers of people in order to establish way in which people are similar or differ

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60
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Research methods for nomethic

A

Scientific methods eg experiment or controlled observation

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61
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Nomothetic research tends to be a feature of those approaches that are what

A

Reductionist determinist and employ scientific method as of investigation

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62
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What is don’t to make nomethic research scientific

A

Hypothesis formulated tested under controlled conditions and finding generated from large numbers of people or animals and tested for statistical significance

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63
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What approaches are nomethics

A

Behavioursim
cognitive
Biological

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64
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
How is behaviourism nomothetic

A

Skinner and behaviourists studied responses of hundreds of rates cats and pigeons etc in order to develop laws of learning

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65
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
How is the cognitive approach nomothetic

A

Able to infer the structure and processes of human memory be measure in the performeance of large sample of people in lab tests

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66
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
How is the biological approach nomothetic

A

Conducted brain scans on countless human brains to make generalisations about localisation of funtion

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67
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
2 for idiographic approach and against nomothetic

A

In-depth rich detail data
Loses whole person

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68
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What a data does idiographic produce

A

Through qualitative methods provides complete global account of individual

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69
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
How does this complement the nomothetic approach approach

A

By shedding further Light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws

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70
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What might a single case generate

A

Hypothesis for further study

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71
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Example for brai damaged individuals

A

Findings may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to overall understanding of

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72
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Why has nomethetic appprach been accused of losing the whole person

A

Preoccupation on general laws prediction and control

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73
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Example for schizophrenia

A

Knowing 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone who is suffering from the disorder

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74
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What has happening in lab stdueid

A

Participants treated as a series of scores or results rather than individual so subjective experience of situation is ignored
Eg tests of memory

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75
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Why is this a weakness for nomothetic

A

In search for generalities may sometimes overlook richness of human experience

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76
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
2 for nomethic approach and against idiographic

A

Nomethic More scientific
Idiographic rearch more narrow and restricted

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77
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
How is nomethic more scientific

A

Mirrors those employed under natural sciences testing under standardised conditions using data sets that provide group averages statistical analyssis prediction and control

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78
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What have scientific processes enabled psychologists to do

A

Establish norms of typical behaviour arguably giving discipline of psychology greater scientific credibility

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79
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What do supporters of idiographic approach have to recognise

A

Narrow and restricted nature of their work

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80
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What is one of the criticisms of Freud

A

That many of his key concepts such as Oedipus comple were largely developed from detailed study of a single case eg little hans

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81
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What is implications of using a single case

A

Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples as no adequate baseline to compare bejabvioru

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82
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Why is unscientific nature of methods used in idiographic bad

A

Conclusions rely not subjective interpretation of researcher leading to bias

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83
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
What is the interaction between them

A

Rather then seeing them as mutually exclusive alternatives is possible to consider same issue or topic from both perspectives depending on nature of research

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84
Q

Idiographic and nomothetic
Example of research into gender development for interaction

A

Attempts to establish general patterns of behaviour sitting along side case studied of atypical development

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85
Q

Holism and reductionism
What is Holism

A

Advocates to look at whole person rather than one specific part to explain behaviour

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86
Q

Holism and reductionism
What is the view of Holism

A

Any attempts to break up behaviour and experience is inappropriate as these can only be understood by analysing person or behaviour as a whole

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87
Q

Holism and reductionism
Why does Holism not believe in reductionism

A

Don’t deny influence of genetics or biochemistry but feeel human behaviour is far more complex so is necessary to take a step back from the detail and consider the person from a less reductionist level

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88
Q

Holism and reductionism
What approach advocates Holism

A

Humanistic psychologists who saw successful therapy as bringing all aspects fo the whol reason

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89
Q

Holism and reductionism
What levels of explantion does Holism draw on

A

Higher levels such as social groups and cognition as social context is important in terms of influence

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90
Q

Holism and reductionism
What is reductionism

A

Belief that human behaviour s best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts

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91
Q

Holism and reductionismw
When is a behaviour reductionist

A

When a single explantion or cause is suggested

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92
Q

Holism and reductionism
What are the types of reductionism

A

Biological
Environmental

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93
Q

Holism and reductionism
What is biological reductionism

A

Attempts to explain behaviour using biological systems eg genetics physiology of body or brain or biochemistry

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94
Q

Holism and reductionism
Why is it called biological reductionism

A

In terms of levels of explaintion it is as reductionism as psychology goes

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95
Q

Holism and reductionism
What does biological determinism not take into account

A

Higher levels of explanation such as leaned associations and influence of other pope

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96
Q

Holism and reductionism
What is environmental reductionism

A

Simplifies behaviour to stimulus response action ‘leaned associations’

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97
Q

Holism and reductionism
Who is environmental reductionism advocated by

A

Behaviourist theorists

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98
Q

Holism and reductionism
What is an example for explantion of environmental reductionism

A

Classical Conditioning

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99
Q

Holism and reductionism
What are levels of explantion

A

Suggests there are different ways of viewing the same behaviour some more reductionist then others

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100
Q

Holism and reductionism
What are the lower levels of explantions

A

More reductionist and fundamental

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101
Q

Holism and reductionism
What are higher levels of explantion

A

More holistic multivariable

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102
Q

Holism and reductionism
Example of low levels of explantions

A

Biochemistry
Cellular biology

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103
Q

Holism and reductionism
Example of middle levels of explantion.

A

Cognitions and emotions
Leaned associations

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104
Q

Holism and reductionism
Example of higher levels of explantions

A

Social cognition
Social groups,family etc

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105
Q

Holism and reductionism
What can different about the levels of explantion

A

Amount of research evidence to support suggestion

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106
Q

Holism and reductionism
What is best way to apply levels of explanation

A

No one explanation in isolation can be taken as correct and therefore several explanations at several levels would be more appropriate

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107
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Strength for reductionism

A

Often forms basis of scientific research

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108
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Why does reductionism for basis of scientiifc research

A

In order to create operationalised variables its necessary to break target behaviours down into constituent part to make it possible to conduct experiments or record observations in a wat which is meaningful and reliable

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109
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
How does the behaviourist approach demonstrate this

A

How complex learning can be broken down to simple stimulus response links within the lab

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110
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Why is this a strength

A

Given psychology greater credibility placing it n equal rearms with the natural sciences lower down in the reductionist hierarchy

111
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
How is biological reductionism good

A

More precise and simple explantion and more scientific them the higher ,ore general levels of explantion and can be tested easier to generate appropriate treatment

112
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Limitation against holism

A

Tend to not lend to rigorous scientific testing and can become vague and speculative as they become more complex

113
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Example of humanistic psychology

A

Takes a holistic approach to behaviour and tends to be critics for its lack of scientific evidence and is instead seen by many as a rather loose set of concepts

114
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
What is bad for higher levels of explanations combining different perspectives

A

Practical dilemma if accept there are many factors that contribute to eg depression become difficult to establish which is more influential and which is best yo use eg for therapies

115
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
What does this suggest

A

When it comes to finding solutions for real world problems lower levels of explantions may be more appropriate

116
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Strengths for holism

A

Most logical explantion for some behaviour

117
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Why kore logical for some behaviours

A

Some aspects of social behaviours that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood at level of the individual group members

118
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Example

A

Effect of conformity to social roles and deindivuation of prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison experiment could not be understood by studying the participants as individuals as was interaction between peoples and behaviour of group which was important

119
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Why is this a strength

A

Holism provide a more complete and global understanding of behaviour than reductionist

120
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3]weakness against reductionism

A

Accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena leading to loss of validity

121
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Example

A

Biological reductionism.

122
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
What is biological reductionism accused of

A

Being too simplistic and therefore incomplete

123
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Problem with explantion at level of gene neurotransmitter or neuron

A

Don’t include an analysis of the social context within which the behaviour occurs and its where the behaviour in question may derive its meaning

124
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Example

A

Physiological processes involved in pointing a finger will not tell us why finger is pointed

125
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
What does this mean

A

Reductionist explantions can only ever for a part of an explantion

126
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
What is the interactionist stance on this debate

A

Believes that several levels of explantions are m necessary to explain behaviour ranging from more reductionist to holistic

127
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
What do intercationists argue

A

All explanations have relevance and ultimately it’s difficult to establish the explantion with the most explantory power and varies from situation to situation

128
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
Example of interactionist position

A

Diathesis stress model

129
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
What is the Diathesis stress model

A

Explains onset of mental disorders eg schizophrenia and such disorders have a predisposition but are trigged by a stressor

130
Q

Holism and reductionism AO3
What has this model led to

A

More multidisciplinary and holistic approach to treatment eg combing drugs with family therapy and is associated with lower relapse rates

131
Q

Nature vs nurture
What is the debate

A

Concerned with extent to which aspects of behaviours are a product of inherited or enquired characteristics

132
Q

Nature vs nurture
Who were original nature

A

Nativists

133
Q

Nature vs nurture
What does nature argue

A

Human characteristics and even some aspects of knowledge are innate and result of heredity

134
Q

Nature vs nurture
What is heredity

A

Genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristic from one generation to another

135
Q

Nature vs nurture
What is heritability coefficient

A

Used to assess heredity and is a numerical figure ranging from 0 to 1.0which indicated the extent which a characteristic has a genetic basis

136
Q

Nature vs nurture
What is the heritability coefficient for IQ and why

A

0.5 suggesting both genetic and environment are important factors in intelligence

137
Q

Nature vs nurture
Who are the original nurture

A

Empiricists

138
Q

Nature vs nurture
What do nurture argue

A

Mind is a blank slate at birth upon which learning and experience writes and important of environment

139
Q

Nature vs nurture
Which approach is nurture

A

Behaviourist

140
Q

Nature vs nurture
What is the environment

A

Any influence on human behaviour that is non genetic

141
Q

Nature vs nurture
What are the levels of environment

A

Range from quite narrow pre natal influences through to post natal experiences such as social conditions and historical influences at a societal levels

142
Q

Nature vs nurture
What approach is nature

A

Biological

143
Q

Nature vs nurture
In a practical sense is the nature nurture question possible to answer and why

A

Impossible as environmental influences in a child’s life begin as soon as born and perhaps earlier

144
Q

Nature vs nurture
Why doesn’t it make sense to separate nature and nurture

A

So closely intertwines

145
Q

Nature vs nurture
Weakness of twin studies for beate

A

Very difficult to tell whether high concordance rates are more resolution of shared genetics or shared upbringing

146
Q

Nature vs nurture
Weakness of twin studies for beate

A

Very difficult to tell whether high concordance rates are more resolution of shared genetics or shared upbringing

147
Q

Nature vs nurture how has the focus of the debate changed recently

A

Psychologists now likely to ask what the relative contribution of each influence is in an interactionist approach

148
Q

Nature vs nurture
How do they interact

A

Nature creates nurture
Hereditary and environment interact

149
Q

Nature vs nurture
Examples of two interaction

A

Diathesis stress model
Genetic disorder PKU

150
Q

Nature vs nurture
What is the diatheis stress model

A

In psychopathology is the biological vulnerability such as being born with a gene that predisposes you to develop disorder but disorder will only develop is environmental stressors to trigger it

151
Q

Nature vs nurture
What is evidence to support Diathesis stress model

A

Finnish adoption study

152
Q

Nature vs nurture
What did the Finnish adoption study do

A

Compared 155 adopted children whose biological mothers had schizophrenia with a matched group of children with no family history of schizophrenia and assessed quality of parenting though self report methods

153
Q

Nature vs nurture
What did the Finnish adoption study find

A

That the group with schizophrenic mothers had a 10% rate of schizophrenia compared to matched group and when family environment rated as healthy occurrence was well below general population rates however environment was not sole cause as low risk children from disturbed families didn’t develop schizophrenia

154
Q

Nature vs nurture
What does this research provide eveidcen for

A

Schizophrenia best explained by looking at an interaction between genetic inheritance and environmental triggers in this case family and environment

155
Q

Nature vs nurture
Why is Diathesis stress model example of interaction

A

Nature (predisposition) nurture (environmental stressor )

156
Q

Nature vs nurture
What is PKU caused by

A

Inheritance of two recessive genes one from each parent

157
Q

Nature vs nurture
What’s re people with PKU unable to do

A

Break down amino acid phenylalanine which builds up in blood and brain causing mental retardation

158
Q

Nature vs nurture
What can be done is pku diagnosed early as a child

A

Placed on low protein diet for first 12 years which helps to advert potentially life long disorder

159
Q

Nature vs nurture how does this show interaction

A

Genetic disorder PKU (nature) not expressed because of an altered environment (nurture )

160
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What is different for ao3

A

Discussion points rather than evaluation

161
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
4 discussion points

A

Difficulties for reasarch
Implications
Shared and unshared environments
Constructivism

162
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What is hard to assess

A

Influences of nature and nurture as fraught with difficulties

163
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
Why is using twin studied problematic

A

Due to assumption that only difference between mz and dz twins is there genetics

164
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What might be different between mz and dz this.

A

Parenting styles in that mz twins are treated more similarly than dz twins so the difference in concordance rates could be due to nurture rather then nature

165
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
Why does research on relative heritability vary

A

Could e due to many things such as sample size methodology and ages indeed may be due to fact some people;e more susceptible to environmental influences then others

166
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What does this mean

A

Consensus hard to reach

167
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What do nativists suggest

A

Anatomy is destiny in that our inherited genetic make up determines out characteristics and behaviour whilst environment has little impact

168
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What has this extreme deterministic stance led to

A

Led to controversy such as that attempted to link race genetics and intelligence

169
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What do empiricist suggest

A

That any behaviour can be changed by altering environmental conditions

170
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What two things has this led to

A

Behaviour shaping led to practical application in therapy
Desirable behaviours reinforced and undesirable behaviours punished or ignored in extreme terms may lead to one advocate a model of society that controls and manipulates its citizens using these techniques

171
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
Why is research attempting to find influence of environment complicated

A

Even sibling raised writhing same family may not have experiences exactly same upbringing

172
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What dos idea do shared and unshared environments suggest

A

Individual differences mean that sibling may experience life events differently eg age would mean life event such as divorces may have different meaning to each sibling

173
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What does this mean

A

Finding that even mz twins reared together don’t show perfect concordance rates which support the view that heredity and the environment cannot be meaningfully separated

174
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What is constructivism

A

People create own nurture by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their nature

175
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
Example of constructivism

A

Eg naturally aggressive child likely to feel more comfortable around children who show similar behaviour and will chose environment accordingly

176
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What does this show

A

Both impossible and illogical to try to separate nature and nurtures influence on child’s behaviour

177
Q

Nature vs nurture AO3
What does this show

A

Both impossible and illogical to try to separate nature and nurtures influence on child’s behaviour

178
Q

bias
What is bias

A

When considering human behaviour bias is tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others

179
Q

bias
What does bias counter

A

Argument that psychologists might make to have discovered facts about human behaviour that are objective and value free

180
Q

bias
What does bias undermine

A

Psychology’s claim to universality

181
Q

bias
What is universality

A

Any underlying characteristics of human beings that is capable of being applied to all despite differences of experience upbringing time or culture

182
Q

Gender bias
What is gender bias

A

Psychological research or theory may offer a view that doesn’t justifiably represent the experience and behaviour in men and women usually women

183
Q

Gender bias
What is alpha bias

A

Psychological research that exaggerates or overestimates differences between men and women

184
Q

Gender bias
What are differences in alpha bias often presented as

A

Real ad enduring
Fixed and inevitable

185
Q

Gender bias
What often happens with differences in alpha bias

A

Occasionally heightens value of women but most likely to devalue females in relation to male counterparts

186
Q

Gender bias
Example of alpha bias

A

Sociobiological theory of relationship formation

187
Q

Gender bias
What does sociobiological theory of relationships formation explain

A

Human sexual attraction and behaviour through the princes of survival efficiency and in males interest to try to impregnate as many women as possible for best chance of genes being passed on
For female best chance of preserving genes by ensuing healthy survival of few offspring

188
Q

Gender bias
What is central premise of sociobiological theory of relationship formation

A

That sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined whilst females who engage in same behaviour are regarded as against their nature

189
Q

Gender bias
Why is this an example of alpha bias

A

Exaggeration of difference between sexes

190
Q

Gender bias
What is beta bias

A

Research that ignored or minimises differences between men and women

191
Q

Gender bias
When does beta bias often occur

A

When female participants aren’t included as part of research process and then assumed research findings a are applied equally to both sexes

192
Q

Gender bias
Example of beta bias

A

Fight or flight response

193
Q

Gender bias
Why is the fight or flight response an example of beta bias

A

Early research into it was based exclusively on meal animals (preferred as female hormones fluctuate)and was assumed to be universal response to a threatening situation

194
Q

Gender bias
What is a possible consequence of beta bias

A

Androcentrism

195
Q

Gender bias
What does androcentrism mean

A

Male centred

196
Q

Gender bias
What will happen in our understanding of what counts as normal behaviour is being drawn from research that involves all male samples

A

Any behaviour that deviates from this standard is likely to be abnormal inferior or deficient by comparison

197
Q

Gender bias
What does this lead to

A

At best female behaviour being misunderstood and worst taken as a sign of psychological instability or disorder

198
Q

Gender bias
What is an example of androcentrism

A

Many feminist commentators have objected to the diagnostic category ‘PMS’ on the grounds that it stereotypes and trivialises female experience and that pms is a social construction which medicalises female emotions by explaining these in hormonal terms

199
Q

Gender bias
2 strengths

A

Reflexivity
Feminist psychology

200
Q

Gender bias
What are many modern researchers beginning to recognise

A

Effect their own values and assumptions have on nature of their work

201
Q

Gender bias
What is happening to gender bias

A

Instead of being seen as a problem that may threaten the objective status of their work, they embrace it as a crucial and critical aspect of the research process in general

202
Q

Gender bias
Why is this a strength

A

Such reflexivity us an important development in psychology and may leas to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping research in the future

203
Q

Gender bias
What have feminist psychologists put forward

A

Put forward number of criteria that should be adhered to in order to avoid gender bias in research

204
Q

Gender bias
How should women be studied

A

Within meaningful real life contexts and genuinely participate in research rather than be objects of study
Diversity within groups of women should be examined rather then compared to men

205
Q

Gender bias
What else should there be

A

Greater emphasis placed on collaborative research methods that collect qualitative data as opposed to quantitative

206
Q

Gender bias
Two weaknesses

A

Implications of gender bias
Sexism within research process

207
Q

Gender bias
What might gender biased research create

A

Misleading assumptions about female behaviour and fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices

208
Q

Gender bias
What might gender bias provide

A

A scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the workplace or wider society
In a woman where men are the standard of normalcy become normal for women to feel abnormal

209
Q

Gender bias
Why is this a weakness

A

Gender bias in research is not just about the methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women

210
Q

Gender bias
Why is this a weakness

A

Gender bias in research is not just about the methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women

211
Q

Gender bias
Example of statistic for gender bias implication

A

Statistic that females are around twice as likely to be diagnosed with depression then men

212
Q

Gender bias
What means female concerns may not be reflected in research questions

A

Lack of women appointed at senior research level

213
Q

Gender bias
What is true for male researchers

A

More likely to have their work published and studies which find evidence of differences are more likely to appear in journal articles

214
Q

Gender bias
Why might lab experiments further disadvantage women

A

Female participants placed in an inequitable relationship with usually male researcher who has power to label them unreasonably irrational and unable to complete complex tasks

215
Q

Gender bias
What does this mean for psychology

A

May therefore be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research

216
Q

Culture bias
What is it

A

Tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of ones own culture

217
Q

Culture bias
What is ethnocentricm

A

Judging other cultures by standards and values of ones own culture

218
Q

Culture bias
What is ethnocentrism in its extreme form

A

Belief in superiority of ones own culture which may lead to prejustice and discrimination towards others cultures

219
Q

Culture bias
What is an example of ethnocentrism and why

A

Ainsworths strange situation as only reflect norms and values of American culture

220
Q

Culture bias
What did ainsworhts strange situation suggest

A

Ideal attachment was characterised by the infant showing moderate amounts of distress when left alone by mother figure

221
Q

Culture bias
What did ainsworths strange situation lead to

A

Misinterpretation of child rearing practices in other countries which seem to deviate from the American norm
German mothers were seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging independence in their children

222
Q

Culture bias
What was realised for ainsworths strange situation

A

Was revealed as inappropriate measurement of attachment style for non US children.

223
Q

Culture bias
What is cultural relativism

A

Idea that norms and values as well as ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts

224
Q

Culture bias
What is imposed etic and why has psychology been accused of it

A

Where behaviour within a single culture is studied such as ainsworhts strange situation and then assumed this could be applied universally

225
Q

Culture bias
What is the suggestion for cultural relativism

A

That psychologists should be more mindful and that the things they discover may only make sense from perspective of culture within which they were discovered

226
Q

Culture bias
What are two ways cultural or gender bias can be reduced

A

Use sample with all different people
Only generalise to types of people within sample

227
Q

Culture bias
Discussion points x4

A

Individualism and collectivism
Cultural relativism vs universality
Challenging implicit assumption s
Operationalisation of variable

228
Q

Culture bias
What have researchers done in past when made reference to culture

A

Have done so within the context of the individualistic collectivist distinction

229
Q

Culture bias
What are individualistic cultures associated with

A

Western cultures such as US who are though to value personal freedom and independence

230
Q

Culture bias
What are collectivist cultures associated with

A

Eg India and chine are said to place emphasis on interdependence and needs of group

231
Q

Culture bias
what have critics said recently

A

in this age of global communication and interconnected ness such distinction between cultures no longer applies

232
Q

Culture bias
what have studies found recently

A

that 14 out of 15 studies that compared usa and Japan found no evidence of distinction between individualism and collectivism

233
Q

Culture bias what does this suggest

A

perhaps that culture bias in research is less of an issue than it once was

234
Q

Culture bias
what should there be a balance between

A

balance between being mindful of imposed etc whilst it shouldn’t be assumed that all psychology is culturally relative and that there s no such thing as universal behaviour

235
Q

Culture bias
what does Ekman suggest

A

basic facial expressions for emotions such as happiness or disgust are the same all over the human and animal world

236
Q

Culture bias
what should critiques of ainsworths strange situation not obscure

A

fact that some features of human attachment eg imitation and international synchrony are universal

237
Q

wCulture bias
what does this mean

A

a full understanding of human behaviour requires the study of both universals and variation among individuals and groups

238
Q

Culture bias
what is one of the greatest benefits of conducting cross cultural research

A

may challenge typically western way of thinking and viewing the world

239
Q

Culture bias
what might being able to see that some knowledge and concepts we take for granted are not shared by others cultures promote

A

greater sensitivity to individual differences and cultural relativism in the future

240
Q

Culture bias
why is this good

A

not only counters charge of scientific racism that has been made against some psychological theories in past but also means that the conclusions psychologists draw are likely to have more validity is they include recognition of the role of the culture in bringing them about

241
Q

Culture bias
what is another issue with conducting research in different cultures

A

variables under review may not be experiences in the same way by all participants

242
Q

Culture bias
example of this

A

behavioural expression of emotions such as aggression may give rise to quite different behaviours within indigenous population than the would in the west

243
Q

Culture bias
example in china

A

invasion of personal space in china seem as normal however maybe be seen as confrontational of threatening in west

244
Q

Culture bias
what is the result of this

A

issues like these may affect interactions between the researcher and participants or between western and non western participants in cross cultural studies

245
Q

ethical implications
why were ethical guidelines established

A

to protect those involved in research

246
Q

ethical implications
what is more difficult to guard against

A

social impact of psychological research once it has been conducted

247
Q

ethical implications
what do researchers have little control and say over

A

how research findings are represented or misinterpreted in the media
impact of work on public policy
how it influences our perception of particular groups in society

248
Q

ethical implications
what is socially sensitive research

A

any psychological research that has wider ethical implications that impacts outside of the research context and might affect people or groups in society

249
Q

ethical implications
what groups or people might socially sensitive research impact

A

participants in research, families and fierce could be affected as a consequences eg participants discovering they have brain of psychopath may be judged
researcher meaning there is an effect on institution that they work for
groups eg subcultures and subgroups such as the with certain religous or political beliefs, ethnic minorities with a particular sexual preference

250
Q

ethical implications
what is likely about levels of controversy

A

different for research and be subject to gr4ater social sensitivity then others

251
Q

ethical implications
should socially sensitive research be shed away from

A

no because of undoubted importance go such research psychologists have. social responsibilty to carry it out

252
Q

ethical implications
what three concerns should psychologists have when carrying out socially sensitive research

A

implications
uses/public policy
validity of research

253
Q

ethical implications
what is the concern of implications

A

wider effects of such research should be carefully considered as some studies may be seen as giving scientific credence to prejudice and discrimination eg studies of intelligence on racial basis
may be difficult to predict at onset

254
Q

ethical implications
what can be implication

A

lesss opportunities for certain people or groups eg employers have preconceived bias
discrimination or prejudice
self confidence and views

255
Q

ethical implications
what is the concern for uses and public policy

A

what the research is going gotbbe used for and could it be used for the wrong purpose
idea that findings may be adopted by government for political ends or to share public policy

256
Q

ethical implications
what is the concern of validity of research

A

some findings that were presented as objective and value free in art have actually tuned out to be suspectful and fraudulent
however many modern social construct researchers who may tackle socially sensitive topics are much more upfront about own biases and preconception upon publications

257
Q

ethical implications
example of ethical implications of a theory

A

Bowlby

258
Q

ethical implications
what did bowl by research and what did it influence

A

attachment and maternal deprivation, argued that mother love in infancy is as important for mental health as vitamins are for physical health influenced the way in which children were raised for atleast a generation

259
Q

ethical implications
what did bowlby impact for public policy

A

uk government decision to not offer free child care places to children under 5 despite this being typical in other European countries

260
Q

ethical implications
what did bowlby have an indirect effect on

A

legal norm that mothers are granted custody of the children in divorce and separation whereas previous it was invariably given to fathers

261
Q

ethical implications AO3
4 discussion points

A

benefits of socially sensitive research
framing the question
cost benefit analysis
social control

262
Q

ethical implications AO3
what did scarr argue

A

studies of underrepresented groups and issues may prompt greater sensitivity and understanding of these

263
Q

ethical implications AO3
what can this help

A

reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance

264
Q

ethical implications AO3
how had socially sensitive research benefited society

A

research into unreliabolotyof eye witness testimonies reduced miscarriage of justices within legal system

265
Q

ethical implications AO3
what does this suggest

A

socially sensitive research may play a valuable role in society

266
Q

ethical implications AO3
what is framing question

A

warns that way in which research questions are phrased and investigated may influence way in which findings are interpreted

267
Q

ethical implications AO3
example of negative framing of question

A

research into ‘alternative relationships ‘has been guilty of a form of heterosexual bias within which homosexual relationships were compared and judged against heterosexual norms

268
Q

ethical implications AO3
what does this suggest

A

suggests to researchers that investigators must approach their research with an open mind and be prepared to have their preconceptions challenged if they’re to avoid misrepresenting minority groups

269
Q

ethical implications AO3
what is cost benefit analysis

A

weighing up possible costs and benefits and only proceed where benefits outweigh costs

270
Q

ethical implications AO3
example of social control

A

in America in 20s and 30s large number of us states enacted legislation that led to the compulsory sterilisation many citizens on grounds that they. were feeble minded and a drain on society

271
Q

ethical implications AO3
what did feeble minded count as

A

deemed of low intelligence drug or alcohol addicts and mentally ill

272
Q

ethical implications AO3
what was the rationale supported by

A

may sections of the scientific and psychological community at the time

273
Q

ethical implications AO3
why is this bad

A

socially sensitive research used t prop up discriminatory practices in the past is an. argument against it widespread adoption

Psychology (11 decks)

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