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research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

aim

A

a general expression of what the researcher intends to investigate.

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2
Q

independent variable

A

the aspect of the experiment that the researcher changes or manipulates.

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3
Q

dependent variables

A

the data that the researcher measures

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4
Q

extraneous variables

A

a variable other than the IV that may affect the DV and should therefore be controlled.

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5
Q

hypothesis

A

a prediction or a testable statement about what the researcher thinks will happen.

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6
Q

null hypothesis

A

predicts there will be no difference between the groups.

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7
Q

alternative hypothesis

A

predicts a difference or a relationship between groups/ conditions.

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8
Q

(alternative) directional hypothesis

A

predicts a difference/ relationship between groups/ conditions and states the direction of the difference.

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9
Q

(alternative) non-directional hypothesis

A

predicts a difference/relationship between groups but does not state the direction of the difference.

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10
Q

lab experiment

A

artificial experiment
controlled/standardised procedure
researcher manipulates IV i measure the effect of the DV
p’s know they are in a study

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11
Q

field experiment

A

IV is manipulated.
carried out in a natural environment.
p’s don’t know they are in an experiment.

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12
Q

natural experiment

A

in a natural environment.
IV is naturally occurring (eg natural disaster).

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13
Q

quasi experiment

A

in either lab or natural environment.
IV is something that naturally occurs within a person (characteristic).
cannot randomly allocate p’s to conditions.

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14
Q

internal validity

A

how much the IV affects the DV alone and caused a changed

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15
Q

mundane realism

A

the extent to which the TASK is representative of that behaviour in the real world.

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16
Q

ecological validity

A

the extent that the results can be generalised to another setting

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17
Q

demand characteristics

A

cues in the environment that may reveal the aim of the experiment causing participants to change behaviour.

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18
Q

experimental designs

A

refers to how participants are organised across the conditions

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19
Q

independent groups

A

each participant takes part in one condition only

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20
Q

repeated measures

A

each participant takes part in both conditions

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21
Q

matched pairs

A

each participant only takes part in one condition only, but participants are matched on variables considered relevant (age, gender,IQ)

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22
Q

experimental realism

A

whether an experiment has a psychological impact and “feels real” to participants.

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23
Q

confounding variables

A

variables apart from the IV that have affected the DV

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24
Q

uncontrolled variables

A

variables that cannot be controlled for. eg participants mood

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25
Q

situational confounding variables

A

features of the experimental situation

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26
Q

participant confounding variables

A

are do to with differences between participants

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27
Q

other types of extraneous variables

A

researcher bias, demand characteristics, order effect.

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28
Q

investigator effects

A

where a researcher acts in a way to support their prediction. this can be particular problem when observing events that can be interpreted in more than one way.

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29
Q

random allocation

A

each person has an equal chance of being put into either condition

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30
Q

standardised procedure

A

the process in which procedures used in research are kept the same, allows for replication to determine reliability.

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31
Q

randomisation

A

presenting any stimuli in an experiment in a “random manner” to avoid it having an effect on the DV, prevents order effects and situational extraneous variables.

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32
Q

single blind test

A

participants don’t know which condition of a study they are in, prevents demand characteristics.

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33
Q

double blind test

A

neither participants nor investigators know which condition the participants are in, prevents researcher bias.

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34
Q

target population

A

the group of people the researcher wants to study.

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35
Q

a sample

A

a small group of people who represents the target population and who is studied.

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36
Q

random sampling, how is it done?

A

where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being chosen.
how:
1. need a sampling frame, a complete list of all members of the target population is obtained.
2.all the names are assigned a number.
3.sample is selected randomly.

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37
Q

opportunity sampling, how is it done?

A

recruiting anyone who happens to be available at the time of your study.
how:
•researcher goes somewhere they are likely to find their target population and ask people to take part.

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38
Q

volunteer sampling, how is it done?

A

when people actively volunteer to be in a study by responding to a request which has been advertised by the researcher.
how:
p’s self select by responding to an advert

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39
Q

systematic sampling, how is it done?

A

involves selecting names from the sampling frame at regular intervals.
how:
1. list of people in the target population organised.
2. a sampling system is nominated.
3. researcher then works through the sampling frame until the samples complete.

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40
Q

stratified sampling, how is it done?

A

participants are selected from different subgroups in the target population in proportion to the subgroups frequency in the population.

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41
Q

reliability

A

refers to the extent to which something is consistent.

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42
Q

test-retest reliability

A

measures test consistency; the reliability of a test measured over time.

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43
Q

inter-rarer reliability

A

the degree of agreement among raters.

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44
Q

validity

A

refers to the extent to which something is measuring what it is claiming to measure.

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45
Q

external validity

A

refers to the extent the results can be generalised to other settings.

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46
Q

population validity

A

describes how well the sample can be generalised to a POPULATION as a whole.

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47
Q

temporal validity

A

refers to whether the findings are still valid TODAY.

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48
Q

lab experiment advantages

A

•can control extraneous variables increasing internal validity.
•standardised procedure so replication can be done to see if the findings are reliable.

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49
Q

lab experiment disadvantages

A

•low ecological validity.
•lack mundane realism.
•p’s knowing they are being tested could cause demand characteristics.

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50
Q

field experiment advantages

A

•environment is natural so higher ecological validity.
•p’s don’t know they are being tested reducing demand characteristics.

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51
Q

field experiment disadvantages

A

•less control of extraneous variables decreasing internal validity.
•ethical issues if p’s are unaware they are in an experiment.

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52
Q

natural experiment advantages

A

•provides opportunities that might not otherwise be available.
•high ecological validity as it’s a real-life event.

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53
Q

natural experiment disadvantages

A

•difficult to establish the cause.
•event may happen very quickly.
•p’s may not be randomly allocated.

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54
Q

quasi experiment advantages

A

•carried out in often controlled conditions

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55
Q

quasi experiment disadvantages

A

•p’s cannot be randomly allocated resulting in participant confounding variables.

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56
Q

independent groups strengths

A

• reduced demand characteristics.
•minimises order effects. eg no practise/fatigued

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57
Q

independent groups weaknesses

A

•participant extraneous variables
•less economical/ time consuming as you need more p’s

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58
Q

repeated measures strengths

A

•participant extraneous variables are controlled for
•less p’s needed so less time consuming/expensive

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59
Q

repeated measures weaknesses

A

•order effects
•demand characteristics

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60
Q

matched pairs strengths

A

•order effects and demand characteristics
•participant extraneous variables are reduced

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61
Q

matched pairs weaknesses

A

•the p’s cannot be truly matched.
•time consuming and expensive.

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62
Q

matched pairs weaknesses

A

•the p’s cannot be truly matched.
•time consuming and expensive.

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63
Q

random sampling advantage

A

lack of researcher bias

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64
Q

disadvantages of random sampling

A

•impractical (time and effort).
•not completely representative.

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65
Q

advantages of opportunity sampling

A

•simple and easy to conduct.
•field/natural experiments must use those available.

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66
Q

disadvantages of opportunity sampling

A

•unrepresentative.
•researcher bias.

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67
Q

advantages of volunteer sampling

A

•most convenient.
•reach a wider audience.

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68
Q

disadvantages of volunteer sampling

A

•biased sample
eg particular interest, altruistic

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69
Q

advantages of systematic sampling

A

•no researcher bias.
•simple (with sampling frame).

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70
Q

disadvantages of systematic sampling

A

•not completely random so not representative.

71
Q

advantages of stratified sampling

A

•most representative.

72
Q

disadvantages of stratified sampling

A

•knowledge of population characteristics required.
•time consuming.

73
Q

construct validity

A

refers to the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring.

74
Q

concurrent validity

A

asks whether a measure is in agreement with a pre-existing measure that is validated to test for the same concept.

75
Q

predictive validity

A

the degree to which a test accuracy predicts a criterion that will occur in the future.

76
Q

face validity

A

where you apply a superficial and subjective assessment of whether or not your study or test measures what it is supposed to measure.

77
Q

case study

A

involves the detailed study of a single individual or a small group of people

78
Q

what kind of data is collected in a case study

A

qualitative

79
Q

what methods are used within a case study

A

uses a mixture of research methods: interviews,observations,questionnaires or psychological testing to asses what they are capable of

80
Q

trigangulation

A

using more than one method to check the validity of the findings

81
Q

how can a case study be so powerful

A

one single case study can refute a whole theory

82
Q

longitudinal study

A

they follow the individual or group over an extended period of time

83
Q

strengths of longitudinal study

A

allows to look at changes over time

84
Q

limitations of longitudinal study

A

ps may drop out, which can lead to a small sample size (attrition rate)

85
Q

Strengths of case studies

A

✓ They offer high levels of validity as they go into depth and give a rich insight.
✓ They allow multiple methods to be used (triangulation) = increasing validity.
✓ They allow researchers to study events or complex psychological areas they could not practically or ethically manipulate.
✓ Efficient as it only takes one case study to refute a theory.

86
Q

Limitations of case studies

A

-Researcher bias: researchers can become too involved and lose their objectivity - misinterpreting or influencing outcomes.
-Lack of control: there are many confounding variables that can affect the outcome.
-As they are unique they can be difficult to replicate and therefore lack scientific rigour.

87
Q

What is observation

A

A researcher will simply observe behaviour of a sample and look for patterns.
Like all non-experimental methods, in an observation we cannot draw cause and effect relationships.

88
Q

How can observation be used

A

Observations are used in psychological research in one of two ways, a method or a technique.

89
Q

Participant reactivity

A

a type of reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.

90
Q

Inter-rate reliability

A

To make observational data more objective and unbiased, there should be at least two observers. They should then compare their data at the end. The correlation should be as close to 1.0 (0.8 minimum) to have good reliability.

91
Q

Naturalistic observations

A

observation of behaviour in its natural setting. The researcher makes no attempt to influence the behaviour of those being observed. It is often done where it would be unethical to carry out a lab experiment.

92
Q

Strengths of naturalistic observation

A

⇒ High levels of ecological validity as carried out in a natural setting
⇒ P’s are less likely to be affected by demand characteristics as they are unaware they are being studied

93
Q

Limitations of naturalistic observation

A

⇒ Little control over EVs - hard to establish causality
⇒ Replication is often not possible - cannot check reliability of the findings

94
Q

Controlled observation

A

This refers to an observation-taking place in a controlled setting, usually behind a one way mirror so they cannot be seen.

95
Q

Strengths of controlled observations

A

⇒ There is less risk of extraneous variables effecting the behaviour as it is in a controlled environment

96
Q

Limitation of controlled observation

A

⇒ The setting is artifical and therefore may lack ecological validity

97
Q

Structured observation

A

The observer creates a behaviour checklist in order to code the behaviour they are observing. They can use time or event sampling.

98
Q

What is a behavioural checklist

A

researchers will use a standardised behaviour checklist to record the frequency of those behaviours. The target behaviour is split up into a set of behavioural categories

99
Q

Criteria for behavioural checklist

A

⇒ Be observable (record explicit actions)
⇒ Have no need for inferences to be made
⇒ Cover all possible components behaviours
⇒ Be mutually exclusive/ not overlap (not having to mark two categories at the same time)

100
Q

What is a pilot study

A

A pilot study allows you to practise using the behaviour checklist/ observation schedule.

101
Q

Event sampling

A

counting each time a particular behaviour is observed.

102
Q

Strength of event sampling

A

Useful when the target behaviour or event happens infrequently and could be missed if time sampling was used.

103
Q

Limitation of event sampling

A

if the situation is too busy and there is lots of the target behaviour occuring the researcher could not record it all

104
Q

Time sampling

A

recording behaviour at timed intervals

105
Q

Strength of time sampling

A

The observer has time to record what they have seen

106
Q

Limitation of time sampling

A

Some behaviours will be missed outside the intervals - observations may not be representative.

107
Q

Strengths of structured observation

A

⇒ The behavioural checklist (coding system) allows objective quantifiable data to be collected which can be statistically analysed
⇒ Allows for more than one observer (due to checklist) which can increase the reliability (inter-observer reliability)

108
Q

Limitation of structured interviews

A

⇒ The pre-existing behavioural categories can be restrictive and does not always explain why the behaviour is happening

109
Q

Unstructured observation

A

The observer note down all the behaviours they can see in a qualitative form over a period of time. No behavioural checklist is used.

110
Q

Strength of unstructured observation

A

⇒ They can generate in-depth, rich qualitative data that can help explain why the behaviour has occurred
⇒ Researchers are not limited by prior theoretically expectations

111
Q

Limitations of unstructured observation

A

⇒ The observer can get drawn to eye catching behaviours that may not be representative of all behaviours occurring
⇒ More subjective and less comparable across researchers

112
Q

Overt observation

A

Participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied, the observer is obvious.

113
Q

Strengths of overt observation

A

⇒ It will better fulfil ethical guidelines (compared to covert)

114
Q

Limitations of overt observation

A

⇒ Participants know they are being observed and therefore they may change their behaviour (participant reactivity)

115
Q

Covert observation

A

Participants are unaware that their behaviour is being studied – the observed is covered.

116
Q

Strength of covert observation

A

⇒ P’s do not know they are being observed and therefore their behaviour is more likely to be natural (higher validity)

117
Q

Limitation of covert observation

A

⇒ It can break many ethical guidelines as deception is used it may cause the p’s some psychological harm

118
Q

Participant observation

A

The observer becomes involved in the participant group and may not be known to other p’s.

119
Q

Strength of participation observation

A

⇒ Being part of the group can allow the researcher to get a deep understanding of the behaviours of the group (increasing validity).

120
Q

Limitations of participant observation

A

⇒ The presence of the researcher might influence the behaviour of the group.
⇒ The researcher may lose objectivity as they are part of the group.

121
Q

Non-participant observation

A

The observer is separate from the participant group that are being observed.

122
Q

Strength of non-participant observation

A

⇒ Researchers observations are likely to be more objective as they are not influenced by the group

123
Q

Limitation of non-participant observation

A

⇒ It is harder to produce qualitative data to understand the reasons for the behaviour

124
Q

self reports

A

methods of gathering data where participants provide information about themselves
eg thoughts, feelings or opinions can be done in written or oral form: questionaires, interviews

125
Q

what is psychometric measure

A

tests that have been assessed for validity and reliability

126
Q

Strengths of self report

A

⇒ It allows ppts to describe their own experiences which provides rich
(qualitative) data about complex human behaviour
⇒ It can help explain the reasons behind behaviour (answers the why)
⇒ It can be an easy way to gather a large amount of data and therefore increase generalisability
⇒ You can ask people hypothetically what they would do without having to set up an experiment and observe behaviour

127
Q

Limitations of self report

A

⇒ Ppts may try to come across in most socially acceptable way (social desirability bias) which can lead to giving untruthful responses and lowering the validity of the results
⇒ It is only useful if the ppt is willing to disclose the information
⇒ Self report relies on ppts to have the introspective ability to understanding their own thoughts and feelings
⇒ Acquiescence bias is often present - people tend to agree with statements
⇒ Ppts may misinterpret the questions (subjective)

128
Q

What are questionnaires

A

Questionnaires are a written self-report technique where participants are given a pre-set number of questions to respond to. They can be administered in person, by post, online or to a group of participants simultaneously (in an experiment).

129
Q

How does questions in a questionnaire be designed

A

Questions should progress logically from the least sensitive to the most sensitive and from the more general to the more specific. The researcher should ensure that the answer to a question is not influenced by previous questions.

130
Q

What are closed questions

A

is when there are only a certain amount of choices available to answer. Closed questions give quantitative data and are easier to analyse.

131
Q

What are open questions

A

produce qualitative data as they allow participants to give a full, detailed answer and there is no restriction on what the participants can say. Open questions could lead to ideas for further investigation. Respondents can find open questions less frustrating than forced choice

132
Q

Standardised instructions

A
  • These are a set of written or recorded instructions that are given to the participant to ensure that all ppts receive them in the same way.
  • It is used as a control to standardise the procedure to increase the reliability and validity of the research.
133
Q

What are filler questions

A
  • Questions put into a questionnaire or interview to disguise the aim of the study.
  • The purpose is to reduce demand characteristics.
134
Q

Strengths of questionnaires

A

⇒ Social desirability bias is reduced as no interviewer is present and questionnaires are often anonymous
⇒ A large amount of data can be collated very quickly which can increase the representativeness and generalisability
⇒ Data can be analysed easier than interviews (if mostly quantitative)

135
Q

Limitations of questionnaires

A

⇒ The options given may not reflect the p’s opinion and they may b forced into answering something which does not fit - lowering validity of the findings
⇒ The quantitative data produces less rich data than interviews

136
Q

What is an interview

A

are self-report techniques that involve an experimenter asking participants questions (generally on a one-to-one basis) and recording their responses.

137
Q

What are structured interviews

A

has predetermined questions. It is essentially a questionnaire that is deliver face-to-face (or over the phone).

138
Q

What are unstructured interviews

A

has less structure. They may start with some predetermined questions and then new questions may develop during the interview depending on the answers given.

139
Q

What are semi-structured interviews

A

is a mix of structured and unstructured and is often the most successful approach.

140
Q

What is an interview schedule

A

Most interviews involve an interview schedule, which is the list of questions that the interviewer intends to cover. This should be standardised for each participant to reduce the contaminating effect of interviewer bias.

141
Q

What is an interview transcript

A

Any audio recordings must be turned into written data which is called an interview transcript. This must protect anonymity.

142
Q

What considerations need to be taken doe interviews

A

The interviewer should conduct the interview in a quiet room, away from other people, as this will increase the likelihood that the interviewee will open up.

143
Q

What are the strengths of structured interviews

A

⇒ Standardised question means it can be replicated
⇒ Reduces differences between interviewers (consistency = higher reliability)
⇒ Quick to conduct

144
Q

What are the limitations of structured interviews

A

⇒ Interviewers cannot deviate from the topic or elaborate points
⇒ Mainly produces quantitative data which lacks insight

145
Q

What are the strengths of unstructured interviews

A

⇒ More flexibility allows for the collection of rich data which offers a deeper insight and for the interviewer to follow up, explore more or seek clarification

146
Q

What are the limitations of unstructured interviews

A

⇒ Difficult to analyse as they produce lots of qualitative data. The researcher should demonstrate reflexivity.
⇒ Interviewees may not be truthful due to social desirability bias which lowers the validity of the findings

147
Q

What is a correlational study

A

investigate whether there is a relationship or association between two variables (co-variables).

148
Q

How do correlational studies differ from the experimental method

A

With experiments the researcher controls or manipulates the IV to measure the effect on the DV and therefore causality can be established. In correlational research there is no manipulation of one variable and thereofroe causaloty cannot be established.
There may be third intervening variables and we cannot establish which direction the relationship is.

149
Q

How do you write a hypothesis for correlational research

A

When writing a hypothesis for correlational research you are stating whether
there is going to be a relationship or association between x and y.
Null = there will be no correlation
Directional = state whether it is positive or negative Non-directional = there will be a relationship / association

150
Q

Data collection in correlational studies

A

● Secondary data e.g. population growth, people in employment
● Observational data e.g. the number of times someone displays a behaviour
● Questionnaires e.g. a standardised measure
● Brain scanning technologies e.g. amygdala activation

151
Q

What graph is used to plot correlational data

A

Scatter graph

152
Q

What does correlational data mean

A

The scatter of dots indicates the degree of correlation between the co-variables.
Perfect positive correlation = 1
High positive = 0.8
Low positive = 0.3
No correlation = 0
(Same for negatives)

153
Q

What is a curvilinear relationship

A

Some relationships are curvilinear. This is where as one variable increases so does the other but only up to a certain point, after which, as one variable continues to increase the other decreases.
As a correlation coefficient would be 0

154
Q

Strengths of correlational studies

A

● They can be used when it would be impractical or unethical to manipulate variables using another method
● It can make use of existing data (secondary), and so can be a quick and easy way to carry out research
● Often, no manipulation of behaviour is required. Therefore, it is often high in ecological validity because it is real behaviour or experiences.
● Correlations are very useful as a preliminary research technique, allowing researchers to identify a link that can be further investigated through more controlled research.

155
Q

Limitations of correctional studies

A

Correlation does not equal causation - no cause and effect relationships can be inferred e.g. one variable cannot be said to cause an increase or decrease in the other variable. The relationship could be explained by a third intervening variable. Correlations are open to misinterpretation.

156
Q

Normal distribution

A

A probability distribution bell-shaped curve. It is the predicted distribution when considering an equally likely set of results
0.5 = normally distributed

157
Q

A positive skew

A

Where most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left of the graph resulting in a long tail on the right

Whale is going home

158
Q

Rule with the mode, median and mean for positively skewed data

A

The median and mean is higher than the mode

159
Q

Negative skew

A

Most of the data is concentrated on the right, resulting in the long tail of an anomaly scores on the left

Whale is going away from home

160
Q

Rule with the mode, median and mean for negatively skewed data

A

The median and mean is lower than the mode

161
Q

What are ethics

A

Concerned with what is right and wrong

162
Q

When do ethical issues arise in psychological research and who governs it

A
  • If there are conflicting values between the researcher and that participants
  • submitted to the ethical panel at a university, use guidelines from the BPS
163
Q

Saying to remember up your ethical guidelines

A

Can Do Can’t Do With Participants

164
Q

What is informed consent, how should it be dealt with

A
  • ps must be aware of what they are needed to do as part of the study in order to give valid consent, this means revealing the true aims of the study when appropriate
  • obtain written consent and give ps an participant information sheet containing all the info they need to make an informed decision
  • children/ people without mental capacity = next of kin
165
Q

What is the right to withdraw and how should it be dealt with

A

Ps still have the right to leave the experiment at any point in time.
The ps must be made aware of this when they sign the consent form

166
Q

What is deception, how should it be dealt with

A

Deliberately misleading or with holding information. Deceiving participants must be kept to a minimum. It will only be allowed to reduce demand characteristics, withholding details to avoid influencing behaviour is acceptable deliberately proving false information is not acceptable

167
Q

What is a debrief, how should it be done

A
  • if Connor be obtained, eg field experiment, participants must be fully debriefed afterward
  • this involves telling the ps about the experiment and then giving them the option of withdrawing their info if they wish during debrief
168
Q

Right to confidentiality/privacy, how should it be dealt with

A
  • The communication of personal information from one person to another and the trust this will be data protected
  • psychologists need to be sure the info they publish will not allow for ps to be identified
  • a persons right to control the flow of information about themselves. We expect privacy in certain situation.
  • if the research is in a public space the research will be granted permission as long as it does not invade privacy
169
Q

What is protection from harm, how should it dealt with

A
  • participants should be no worse off when they leave an experiment as to when they arrived
  • risk is considered acceptable if it is no greater than what would be experienced in everyday life
  • if harm is caused then ps should be signposted to relevant services.
170
Q

How to write a consent form

A
171
Q

Levels of data

A

The best level of data is interval, the worst is nominal

172
Q

Nominal data

A
  • Nominal level data is data that can be grouped into categories e.g. favourite lessons.
  • There is no logical order to the categories.
  • The most appropriate measure of average for this level of measurement is the mode.
173
Q

Ordinal data

A
  • Ordinal level data is data that is presented in ranked order (e.g. places in a beauty contest) but the values themselves have no meaning e.g. The person who comes 1st is not twice as beautiful at the person who comes 5th (out of ten competitors).
  • The data may be subjective e.g. happiness scores.
174
Q

Interval data

A
  • Interval level data is measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale. For example, time measured in seconds.
  • Psychological tests which are standardised (psychometric test) e.g. IQ scores, are classed as interval

psychology (11 decks)

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