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aggression Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the difference between hot-blooded and cold- blooded aggression

A
  • Proactive aggression (cold blooded) – A pre meditated way of getting what you want e.g. rape, murder.
  • Reactive aggression (hot blooded) – Angry and impulsive behaviour coupled with physiological arousal.
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2
Q

What are the economic implications of aggressive behaviour

A

• Police costs
• Court costs
• NHS costs – ambulance service and therapeutic treatments • Lost worker productivity
• Property damage

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3
Q

What are the two neural explanations

A

These are explanations relating to a nerve or the nervous system including brain anatomy and neurotransmitters that allow communication between neurons. You need to know:
• The limbic system
• levels serotonin

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4
Q

What is the limbic system

A
  • MacLean (1952) introduced the term the limbic system which is the centre of emotional regulation. It includes the hypothalamus, amygdala and regions of the hippocampus.
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5
Q

What is the relationship between the amygdala and aggression

A
  • The reactivity of the amygdala in mammals is an important predictor of aggressive behaviour as it has a key role in responding to environmental threats.
  • The more reactive a person’s amygdala the higher levels of aggression shown.
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6
Q

Gospic et al - the amygdala

A
  • In this research ppts played ‘The Ultimatum Game’. Subject A (the Proposer) is given a sum of money but has to offer subject B (the Responder) some. If subject B accepts the offer, they both keep the money but if subject B rejects it, they both lose the money.
  • The researchers used a fMRI to monitor brain activity while playing.
  • They found that when subject B rejected the offer, there was a fast heightened response in the amygdala
  • In conclusion it suggests an association between reactive aggression and the amygdala.
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7
Q

The role of serotonin in aggression

A
  • Serotonin has widespread inhibitory effects on the brain, slowing down
    neuronal activity.
  • Aggression in humans and animals is associated with low levels of
    serotonin.
  • Normal levels in the OFC reduce the firing of neurons and allow for a greater degree of behavioural self-control. Decreased levels disturb this mechanism reducing self-control and increasing impulsive behaviour (including aggression).
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8
Q

Virkunnen et al - levels of serotonin

A
  • Compared levels of a serotonin breakdown product (5-HiAA) in the cerebrospinal
    fluid of violent impulsive and violent non-impulsive offenders.
  • Results: The levels were significantly lower in the impulsive offenders. This is because the reduction of the 5-H1AA means there is decreased serotonin activity in the brain which influences the ability to control impulsive (reactive) aggressive behaviour.
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9
Q

What are the two hormones related to aggression

A
  • testosterone
  • progesterone
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10
Q

Role of testosterone in aggression

A
  • Testosterone is an androgen responsible for the development of masculine features and it is thought to be linked to aggressive behaviour.
  • Males are generally more aggressive than females and have higher levels of testosterone. Aggression in males is highest around 20+ years old when testosterone peaks.
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11
Q

What have animal studies shown about this relationship

A

Giammanco et al (2005) have demonstrated experimental increases in testosterone are related to greater aggressive behaviour and the removal of the testes reduces aggression in many animal species.

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12
Q

What have prison studies shown about this relationship

A

Dolan et al (2001) found a positive correlation between testosterone levels and
aggression in a sample of 60 male offenders in UK maximum security hospitals.
The men mostly had personality disorders and history of impulsive (reactive) violent behaviour.

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13
Q

What is the relationship between progesterone and aggression

A
  • There is some evidence that progesterone plays an important role in aggression in women.
  • Levels of progesterone vary during the ovulation cycle are lowest after menstruation.
  • Ziomkiewick (2012) found a negative correlation between progesterone levels and self-reported aggression. This suggesting low levels of progesterone are linked to increased aggression in women.
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14
Q

What types of studies are carried out to find out the genetic component of aggression

A
  • To determine the genetic component of aggression (nature) vs the environmental component (nurture) each influence needs to be disentangled.
  • This can be done by looking at twin, adoption and family studies.
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15
Q

Why are twin studies useful

A

Twin studies are useful for comparing the concordance rates for both monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins.
If MZ twins have a higher concordance rate it suggests there is a genetic component as they share 100% of the same DNA, rather than 50% like DZ twins.

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16
Q

What did coccaro et al find about genetics and aggression

A

Coccaro et al (1997) studied aggressive behaviour in adult twins. Researchers found that MZ twins had concordance rates of 50% and DZ twins 19% for physical assault and 28% and 7% respectively for verbal assault.

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17
Q

Limitation of twin studies

A

Twins are brought up in the same environment and therefore could be those factors having an impact

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18
Q

Why are adoption studies useful

A

In adoption studies if a positive correlation is found between aggressive behaviour in adopted children and aggressive behaviour in their adopted parents, then an environmental effect is implied.
If the correlation is between the adopted child and their biological parents, then a genetic effect is implied.

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19
Q

Rhee and Walman - genetics and aggression

A
  • carried out a meta-analysis of adoption studies of direct aggression and anti-social behaviour (a prominent feature being aggression).
  • They found they genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression – in line with the same finding as twin studi
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20
Q

Hutching and mednick - genetics and aggression

A

carried out a study on 14,000 adoptions in Denmark found that a significant number of adopted boys with criminal convictions had biological parents, especially fathers, with criminal convictions.

21
Q

What gene has been linked to aggression

A
  • The MAOA gene controls the production of the MAO-A enzyme which regulates the metabolism (breakdown) of serotonin. As learnt in the previous topic low levels of serotonin are associated with high levels of aggression.
  • Genes can come in high or low variants. The MAOA-L results in low activity of the MAO-A enzyme. This gene has been linked to high levels of aggression.
22
Q

Why is the MAOA dubbed the warrior gene

A

MAOA-L has also been dubbed the warrior gene because it is seen much more frequently in populations with a history of warfare – with 2/3rds of these populations having low activity versions.

23
Q

Brunner et al - genetics and aggression

A
  • studied a Dutch family in which 28 of the males behaved very aggressively and violently e.g. rape, attempted murder and assault.
  • These men were found to have abnormally low levels of MAO-A enzyme and the MAOA-L gene variant and as a result is now referred to as Brunner Syndrome.
24
Q

Why might it not be genes alone that cause aggression

A
  • Genes do appear to have a crucial role in aggression, but they do not function in isolation. It appears that MAOA-L gene activity is only correlated with adult aggression when combined with traumatic life experiences.
  • This can be explained using the diathesis-stress model.
25
Q

What did Frazzetto et al find

A

found an association between higher levels of the MAOA-L gene in men but only if they had also experienced significant trauma, such as sexual or physical abuse, during the first 15 years of life. Those who had not experienced childhood trauma did not have particularly high levels of aggression as adults, even if they possessed the MAOA-L gene.

26
Q

What is ethology

A

Ethology is the study of animal behaviour in a natural setting.

27
Q

Key terms for ethological explanation

A

• Adaptive functions
• Ritualistic aggression
• Innate releasing mechanisms (IRMs) and fixed action patterns (FAPs)

28
Q

Founder of ethology and how he defines aggression

A

Konrad Lorenz - He defined aggression as “the fighting instinct in beasts and man that is directed against members of the same species”.

29
Q

Assumptions of ethology

A

• Aggression is an instinct. It occurs in all members of a species without the need for learning. It is innate and mostly genetically determined (link with previous section).
• We can study non-human animals and extrapolate to humans because we are all subject to the same laws of natural selection.

30
Q

Adaptive meaning

A

Ethological explanations suggest that the main function of aggression is adaptive. This means it is beneficial for the species.

31
Q

One adaptive function of aggression

A
  • After an aggressive encounter the ‘losing’ animal is rarely killed (see next slide on ritualistic aggression). Instead, the loser is forced to move into another area.
  • This is adaptive because it spreads individuals out over an area which reduces competition for resources.
32
Q

Second adaptive function of aggression

A
  • It allows for the formation of a dominance hierarchy. This is adaptive because dominance brings benefits such as mating rights.
  • Also, once the dominance hierarchy is established it reduces the incidences of aggression between individuals.
33
Q

Pettit et al - dominance hierarchies in humans

A

Studied play groups of young children and observed that aggressive interactions were an important aspect of how some children gain dominance over others.

34
Q

What is a ritual

A

A ritual is a series of behaviours carried out in a set order.

35
Q

What is ritualistic aggression

A

Lorenz observed that in fights between animals, actual injury is rare.
Most aggressive interactions consist of ritualistic signalling (snarling, displaying claws, pushing contests) and rarely becomes physical.

36
Q

What is an appeasement display

A
  • Lorenz suggested that intra-species (within-species) aggressive confrontations end with
    a ritual appeasement display.
  • These are thought to indicate acceptance of defeat and thus inhibit any further aggression from the victor and thus preventing actual injury).
  • This is adaptive because if aggressive encounters ended with injury or death it could threaten the existence of the species.
37
Q

What did Lorenz argue about appeasement in wolves

A

Lorenz suggested that the wolf showing its jugular vein is an appeasement signal.

However, Schenkel (1967) argues against this view and suggests that this ‘submissive’ pose is actually a challenge that leads to further fighting.

38
Q

What is an innate releasing mechanism

A

An IRM is a biological structure or process triggered in the brain, which is activated by an external stimulus that in turn triggers a fixed action pattern.

39
Q

What is a fixed action pattern

A

A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a sequence of stereotyped pre-programmed behaviours triggered by an innate releasing mechanism.

40
Q

What are features of FAPs

A

Lea (1984) argues FAPs have six main features:
• Stereotyped, unchanging sequence
• Universal within the species
• Unaffected by learning
• Ballistic, once started they must continue
• Single purpose, only occurring in one type of situation
• A response to an identifiable and specific stimulus, called a releaser if intra- specific

41
Q

Outline Tinbergens study on sticklebacks

A
  • Male stickleback fish are very territorial in the mating season. During this season, males develop a red underbelly.
  • If another male enters their territory a FAP is released in response to the releaser/sign stimulus of the colour red.
  • Tinbergen presented sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of different shapes. He found regardless of the shape (even if the shape was not realistic of a fish) if there was a red spot the stickleback would attack it. No red spot – no attack.
  • The FAP always ran its course to completion without any other stimulus.
42
Q

What is a cuckold

A
  • A cuckold is the a husband of a cheating wife and cuckoldry creates a threat of paternity uncertainty
  • It is an evolutionary waste of resources to raise children who are not a male’s own as it is contributing to the survival of a competitor’s genes
43
Q

How can cuckoldry explain aggressive behaviour

A
  • Men in the evolutionary past who avoided cuckoldry were more reproductively successful and therefore adaptive psychological mechanisms have evolved to increase anti-cuckoldry behaviours in males
  • This can drive aggressive strategies by men to retain their partners and prevent them from straying
44
Q

The two male retention strategies (Wilson and Daly)

A

Direct guarding - Male vigilance over a partner’s behaviour e.g. checking who they’ve been seeing, coming home early, keeping tabs on their whereabouts, tracking them

Negative inducements - Issuing threats of dire consequences e.g. threatening to kill themselves if a partner leaves

45
Q

What did Wilson find out about mate retention strategies

A
  • found that women who reported mate retention strategies in their partners were twice as likely to have suffered physical violence at the hands of their partners
  • Of these women, 73% required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives.
46
Q

What is bullying

A
  • A power imbalance where a more powerful individual uses aggression against a weaker e person
  • evolutionary explanation suggests it is an adaptive strategy to increase chances of survival by creating reproduction opportunities
47
Q

Why might bully - associated characteristics be classed as adaptive

A
  • Characteristics associated with bullying behaviour are attractive to females as it suggest dominance, acquisition of resources and strength and can ward off potential rivals
  • Bullying-associated characteristics therefore deliver access to more females and minimal threat from competing males which would be natural selected because males can reproduce more.
48
Q

Female bullying

A
  • Female bullying more often takes place within a relationship and is a method of control to help secure the males fidelity.
  • The partner continues to provide resources for future offspring and the behaviour is naturally selected because it enhances the women’s reproductive success.

psychology (11 decks)

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