Relationships Flashcards
What is a relationship
A continuing and often committed association between two or more people
What is natural selection
The argument that genes which are advantageous for survival are naturally selected
What is sexual selection
A form of natural selection which suggests that the characteristics that increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated through generations
What is anisogamy
Refers to the sex differences between male and female sex cells
What is the consequence of anisogamy
There is no shortage of fertile males but there are of fertile females (they are a rarer resource). Anisogamy gives rise to two types of sexual selection:
- intersexual (between the sexes)
-intrasexual (within the sexes)
Intersexual selection - female strategy
-This involves strategies that are used by one sex to attract the other sex
-Evolutionists would argue that females prefer quality over quantity and therefore intersexual selection is particularly important for them.
Intersexual selection impact on partner preference - trivers
-argues that females make greater commitments before, during and after the birth of her offspring so will be more selective than males. Therefore, it is female preference that will determine which features are passed onto the offspring.
-Once a trait e.g., height is passed down through several generations is gradually becomes exaggerated (a runaway process).
Fisher (1930) - the sexy son’s hypothesis (intersexual)
-Suggests the genes we see today are those with enhanced reproductive success.
-A female who mates with a male with a certain ‘sexy’ trait will have sons with this trait.
This son will then get selected by other females and the trait will get passed on and the ‘sexy’ trait is perpetuated.
Intrasexual selection- male strategy
- This involves strategies between males to try be the one that is selected.
- males prefer quantity over quality and therefore intrasexual selection is particularly important for them.
- ‘Winning’ males get their genes (and therefore characteristics passed) onto their offspring and this trait is likely to be perpetuated.
Intrasexual selection impact on partner preference
- can explain the physical differences in the body size and physical appearance between males and females (this is known as physical dimorphism)
e.g., men being larger to fight off competition and females looking more youthful. - The behavioural consequence of this strategy is that competitive behaviours are more likely to be passed on e.g., deceitfulness, intelligence and aggression. Therefore, aggression can be argued to be an adaptive strategy.
Theories of attraction
- self disclosure
- physical attractiveness
- filter theory
Self disclosure
•voluntary sharing of private aspects of the self with another person
• relationship formation is built on trust with another person, which is demonstrated by gradually revealing info
•leads to greater intimacy and therefore more satisfaction
Social penetration theory - Altman & Taylor
- self-disclosure is the gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else, revealing too much straight away might be inappropriate.
- By revealing personal information, you display trust.
Breadth and depth (onion analogy)
- relationships move from superficial levels (low breadth and depth of self-disclosure)
- to deeper and more intimate levels (high breadth and depth of self-disclosure) as individuals disclose more personal information to each other.
Importance of reciprocity in self disclosure
- Once you have disclosed something that reveals your true self, hopefully your partner will respond in a way that is rewarding, with understanding, empathy, and their own intimate thoughts and feelings.
- This leads to a balance of self-disclosure between both partners, deepening the relationship.
Factors involved in self disclosure
- Appropriateness of the disclosure
- Attributions for the disclosure
- Gender differences
- Content of the disclosure
Appropriateness
• Sometimes disclosing personal information is inappropriate.
• Is what is being said going against social norms?
• Those who contravene social norms will be seen as maladjusted and lacking in social skills.
• Attractiveness increases when the other person is sensitive to social norms.
Attributions for the disclosure
• The reasons we believe a person is self-disclosing are important to us.
• Less attraction occurs if an individual is seen as the kind of person who discloses personal information to everyone, or if the situation is not appropriate.
• More attraction occurs if we believe an individual sees us as someone they especially want to disclose intimate information to.
Gender differences
• Women are generally seen as better communicators of and more interested in intimate information, therefore intimate self-disclosure by males may be seen as less appropriate than those by females.
• Alternatively self-disclosure by a male may be seen as very rewarding by a female, as it indicates he especially wants to disclose personal information to her.
• Males may not be used to this and so feel threatened by females self- disclosing intimate details.
Content of the disclosure
• Generally intimate disclosures are seen favourably.
• However, disclosure of highly intimate information may be seen as inappropriate and as violating social norms, especially if the relationship is in its early stages.
• This could decrease attraction, as the recipient of the information may feel threatened and unsure of how to respond.
• Attraction is stronger when self-disclosure is of moderate intimacy rather than low or high intimacy.
Features deemed physically attractive
- Symmetrical faces - Found people with symmetrical faces are more attractive as they have an honest set of genetic fitness
- neotenous faces - (baby face) with widely separated large eyes, a small chin and a small nose is deemed to be attractive as it triggers a caring instinct
- larger males
what is meant by the matching hypothesis
-claims that people are more likely to form a committed relationship with someone equally attractive or the same level of social desirability.
-The theory suggests that people assess their own value and then make realistic choices by selecting the best available potential partners who are also likely to share this same level of attraction.
Walster et al - matching hypothesis
The halo effect
- The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias whereby our perception of someone is positively influenced by our opinions of that person’s other related traits (Thorndike, 1920).
- The halo effect can shape our perception of others’ intelligence and competence.
the attractiveness stereotype
•the tendency to assign positive qualities and traits to physically attractive people
•people judge attractive info to have higher morality, better mental health and greater intelligence.
•this reflects individuals prejudices, ideology and social perceptions
filter theory field of avaliables and field of desirables
• when choosing a partner people start by looking at the options that are available to us - field of available
• there are three filter individuals apply to narrow down partner choice to field of desirables
Filter theory levels - kerckhoff and Davis
• sociodemographic
•similarity of attitudes
•complementarity
sociodemographic filter
• eg proximity, education, social class, religion and the other important factors people are likely to pay attention to when we are meeting a person for the first time.
•these will determine the likelihood of meeting and socialising, which will in turn influence the likelihood of a relationships being formed
similarity of attitudes
•people tend to view others as more attractive if they share the same core beliefs and values
• especially important in earlier stages
• is found through self disclosure
complementarity
•each of the partners having some traits that the other partner lacks and helping each other to fulfil their needs
• plays a role in longer term relationships
Social exchange theory - Thibault and Kelly (1959)
- is an economic theory of relationships. It describes romantic relationships using the economic terminology of rewards and costs. It assumes individuals make rational decisions about relationships.
