approaches Flashcards
founding father of psychology
•Wilhelm Wundt (1879)
•opened the first psychology lab
•in Leipzig German
•published first book on psychology (principles of physiological psychology)
how did psychology emerge as a science
•Wundt attempted to use objective methods.
•separated psychology from philosophy by using standardised procedures.
eg. ticking metronome
introspection
•wundt used introspection to investigate the human mind. p’s were asked to reflect on their own cognitive processes and describe them
•people were trained to report in detail on their inner experiences when presented with a stimuli such as a problem to solve or sometimes be memorised
structuralism
this is identifying consciousness by breaking down behaviours into basic elements of thoughts, images, sensations.
what is meant by the behaviourist approach
a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
classical conditioning
learning by association
operant conditioning
learning by reinforcement
reinforcement
a consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.
assumptions of behaviourism
•observable events - primarily concerned with observable and measurable behaviour.
•scientific - psych is a science so behaviour must be measured in high controlled environments to establish cause and effect.
•blank slate - when born our mind is a blank slate and all behaviour is learnt.
•value of animal research - little different between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals.
•behaviour S-R response - behaviour is the result of S-R, all behaviour can be reduced to a simple S-R association.
pavlov’s dogs - classical conditioning
pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food places in front of them, but noticed the dogs would begin salivating whenever they heard footsteps of his assistant who was bringing them the food
process of classical conditioning
UCS —> UCR
UCR + NS —> UCR
CS —> CR
positive reinforcement
is receiving a reward when certain behaviour is performed.
negative reinforcement
occurs when an animal/human avoids something unpleasant so continues doing a certain behaviour.
punishment
unpleasant consequences given to stop a certain behaviour
skinners box’s
created skinners box to examine operant conditioning in rats and pigeons. the animal would move around the cage, and when it was pressed the lever it was rewarded. the animal would learn though positive reinforcement, that each time it pressed the lever it would be rewarded with food, therefore learning a new voluntary behaviour which is repeated to receive the reward again
development of behaviourism - bandura
•bandura agreed with the behaviourists that much of our behaviour is learned from experience but he argued that people learn through observation, and imitation of others.
• classical & operant conditioning does not account for all behaviour.
•bridge between behaviourism and cognitive factors.
learning through others
observation, imitating and modelling
importance of environment and cognitive factors
•SLT considers how both environmental (behavioural) and cognitive factors interact to influence human behaviour and learning.
• important mental processes between the stimulus - response.
Role models
• learning occurs through the observation of role models
•more likely to imitate a role model if you identify with them
•modelling is a process that occurs during SLT. modelling can occur when an observer imitates a role model
vicarious reinforcement
• involves learning through observation of the consequences of actions of other people.
•when a learner observes someone they identify with and the role model receives reinforcement the learner is motivated to imitate the behaviour as if they have been reinforced themselves.
mediational processes
we do not automatically observe the behaviour of a model and imitate it there is prior to imitation and it occurs between observing the behaviour and imitating it or not.
•Attention
•Retention
•Motor reproduction
•Motivation
Bobo doll experiment
Aim: To investigate whether aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles.
Method: 72 children (36 male and 36 female) aged between 3 and 6 years old were put into one of three groups for 10 minutes:
1) Aggressive model- the child played in a room while an adult hit and shouted at a “Bobo doll”: a plastic inflatable toy doll which was heavy at the bottom and wobbled when hit. This group was further subdivided by the gender of the child and the adult model, creating four conditions (see below).
2) Non-aggressive model’- the child played in a room while an adult played quietly with a construction set.
This group was further sub-divided once again by the gender of the child and the adult model, creating another four conditions (see below).
3) Control group - the child did not see a model.
The children were deliberately frustrated by being taken into another room where they were told that they could not play with any toys. Then, they were placed alone in a room with a range of aggressive toys (mallet, gun) and non-aggressive toys (dolls, crayons) and the Bobo doll for twenty minutes whilst being observed.
Results: Children who saw the aggressive model produced more aggressive acts than those in either of the other two groups. Boys imitated same-sex models more than girls. Girls imitated more physical aggression if they saw male models, and more verbal aggression if they saw female models.
Conclusion: Aggressive behaviour can be learned, in children, through observation and imitation of a model.
cognitive approach
•concerned with how thinking shapes behaviour
•was developed as a reaction against the behaviourist S-R approach
the importance of inference for cognitive approach
• mental internal processes are private and cannot be observed so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences
•what is going on inside peoples minds on the basis of their behaviour eg the stroop test
computer analogy
mind works like a computer in that it has an input from our senses which it then processes and produces output such as language or specific.
input —> process —> output
the role of theoretical models (cognitive)
one way cognitive psychologists study internal processes is through the use of theoretical models such as the information processing model
the role of schemas (cognitive)
a schema is a cognitive framework of ideas and information developed through experience. they act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system. these schemas help organise and interpret information in the brain
cognitive neuroscience
the scientific field concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes
what are genes
genetic information carried by DNA in chromosomes, found within a cells nucleus and are passed on through generations of species.
how do genes affect behaviour
•genes are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics eg eye colour
•individuals can only inherit a gene that gives you a pre-disposition, for certain behaviours.
how do we study the genetic basis of behaviour
•twin studies, using concordance crates the which refer to the extent to which both share the same characteristic.
•we compare concordance rates with monozygotic (identical) to dizygotic (non-identical).
•-if Mz twins are found to have higher concordance rates then DZ for depression, IQ ect this would suggest a genetic basis for that behaviour because
the behaviour is more commonly shared when the siblings are more genetically
similar.
evolutionary explanation
-characteristics that are not suited to
a species’ environment will die out as it struggles to survive.
- over time characteristics will evolve over generations so that only adaptive characteristics remain in future offspring.
genotypes
the actual genetic make-up of a person the pairing of the alleles for a particular trait
(ВВ, ВЬ, bb)
phenotype
•the way genes are expressed through the observable characteristics shown by the individual.
•These are due to a combined effect of genes and environment.
different basis’ of behaviour in the biological approach
•neurochemical
•neuroanatomical
•hormones
neurochemical basis of behaviour
how neurotransmitters effect our behaviour.
eg low levels of serotonin and high dopamine are vulnerable to develop OCD.
neuroanatomical basis of behaviour
different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions.
eg chance et al (2001) - found a correlation between schizophrenia and enlarged ventricles.
hormones as a basis of behaviour
chemicals produced by endrocine glands such as the pituitary gland, which together make up the endocrine system.
eg carre et al (2006) increased testosterone whenever a canadian ice hockey team played in their home stadium, suggesting the hormone energised the player to behave aggressively and defend their home territory.
the psychodynamic approach
all psychodynamic theories emphasise the importance of unconscious motives and desires (innate drives) and the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping personality.
what analogy does Freud use to describe the mind
uses an iceberg analogy, conscious is the smallest part at the top, unconscious biggest at the bottom.
conscious mind
what we are aware of
pre-conscious
things that come to the conscious from talking
unconscious mind
what we are unaware of
the ID
•contains the innate drives
•operates solely in the unconscious
•present from birth
• it is the irrational, primitive part of personality and contains libido
what is the ID governed by
pleasure principle
the superego
• this part is internalisation of societal rules
• determine what behaviours are acceptable and causes feelings of guilt and when rules are broken
• develops around age 5
• the ego-ideal is what a person strives towards and most determined by parental standards of good behaviour.
what governs the superego
morality principle
Ego
•the ego mediates between the impulsive demands or the ID the superego and the reality of the external world
•origin of consciousness (the self)
what governs the ego
reality principle
what are defence mechanisms
unconscious strategies used by the ego to manage anxiety caused by the conflict of the id and superego
examples of defence mechanisms
•repression
•denial
•displacement
repression
unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses
denial
refusing to believe reality
displacement
transferring feelings of the source to someone else
when are defence mechanisms problematic
these are not clinical symptoms but part of everyday life
pyschoanalysis
involves effort to understand defences and unconscious motivates driving self-destructive behaviours.
how is childhood important in the psychosexual stages
all children go through the same five stages of development.
what is the stage theory of development
•children pass through different stages that requires resolution of a particular conflict
•failure to navigate a stage’s particular conflict is know as fixation
•how successfully we go through these stages can determine our adult character, pets and behavioural traits
what is the stage theory of development
•children pass through different stages that requires resolution of a particular conflict
•failure to navigate a stage’s particular conflict is know as fixation
•how successfully we go through these stages can determine our adult character, pets and behavioural traits
oral stage
• focus of pleasure is the mouth, mothers breast is the object of desire
•causes conflict as wiened off but still desire mother.
•consequences - smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical.
• 0-1 years.
anal stage
•focus pleasure is the anus, child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
•conflict due to potty training
•consequences: anal retentive- perfectionist anal expulsive - thoughtless, messy
phallic stage
•focus of pleasure is the genital area. children experiences the Odepius complex & electra complex.
•consequences - narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual.
• 3-5 years
Oedipus complex
•boys have an unconscious desire for their mother, therefore they have hostility towards their father and worry their father will castrate them (castration anxiety)
•to resolves the conflict they identify with their family
•traumatic so ego establishes defends mechanisms
electra complex
•girls become subconsciously sexually attached to her father and increasingly hostile towards her mother.
•get penis envy as they realise they have not got one and lead to them wanting a baby
•to resolve their conflict they then identify with their mother and internalise her identity.
latency stage
earlier conflicts are repressed
genital stage
•sexual desire become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
•leads to difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
what is humanistic psychology
it is focused on discovering what it means to be fully human
holism
emphasises the study of the whole person, which is the opposite of reductionism.
why do humanists reject scientific methods
because they see it as dehumanising and unable to capture the richness of conscious experience
free will
idea that humans have a choice in how they behave
Maslows hierarchy of needs
self-actualisation
esteem
love/belonging
safety
physiology
which are deficiency needs in maslows hierarchy of needs
physiology, safety, love/belonging, esteem
which are growth needs in maslows hierarchy of needs
self-actualisation
what does Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs theory suggest
•maslow suggested that individuals are intrinsically motivated to work up through the hierarchy step-by-step
•the needs become more psychological as you move up.
•the needs get harder to satisfy the higher up you go.
self actualisation
means that a person becomes the best version of themselves they can be.
eg Albert Einstein
Rogers the self three features
Positive regard
Congruence
Conditioning worth
According to Roger’s how does self worth develop
From good relationships with supportive partners in childhood and later with friends and partners, which directly impacts on psychological well-being.
What is unconditional positive regard
•the basic acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does
•People who are able to self-actualise are more likely to have received positive regard from others.
What are the conditions of worth
-mean that individuals feel they must behave in certain ways to receive this positive regard.
- if a person has conditions of worth they only receive conditional positive regard.
Congruence
•the consistency between the perceived self and the ideal self
•the gap between the two can be reduced
How did Rogers influence counselling
- believed taking a persons centred approach to counselling
- the role of the therapist is to provide unconditional positive regard to the client by expressing acceptance, empathy and understanding of their condition
- helps to close the gap between the perceived and ideal self
- the gap can be reduced by developing a more healthy view of one self or having a more achievable and realistic ideal self.
