Research Methods Flashcards
How do you work out the mean
Add all the values together then divide by the number of values
What’s a strength of using mean as a measure of central tendency
More sensitive as it uses all score and not just a select few
What’s a weakness of using mean as a measure of central tendency
Can be easily distorted if there is outliers and therefore be unrepresentative
How do you work out the median as a central tendency
All the values are arranged into order and the middle value is the median
What is a strength of using the median
It’s not affected by outliers so still representative
What’s a weakness of using a median as a central tendency
May not be representative as does not take into account all data
How do you work out the mode
The most frequent recurring number
What’s a strength with using the mode
Not effected by outliers
What’s a weakness of using a mode
Can be unrepresentative and there isn’t always a mode
How do you work out the range
The highest number takeaway the lowest number
What’s a strength of using the range as a measure of central tendency
It gives a basic indication of the spread of scores
What’s a weakness of using the range as a measure of dispersion
Does not indicate how groups are scored around the mean
What is a self report
Any method where a person is asked to state or explain their own thoughts/feelings
What are ethical concerns?
Withdraw
Consent
Confidentiality
Deception
Protection from harm and abuse
How can we ensure consent is given
Obtain prior general consent - inform the participant they will not be told everything and may be deceived
Obtain fully informed consent - ask the participants to formally consent to the research after being given comprehensive details about the aims and procedures
How can we ensure we do not decept people
After the research is completed inform participants of the true aims of the research and debrief the participants so they know they can leave the research
How can we ensure people know they have the right to withdraw
Provide people with the right to withdraw at any point in the study
How do we maintain confidentiality
Avoid collecting personal details from participants
Maintain anonymity - false names or numbers to identify participants
How do we ensure participants in a study are protected from harm
Terminate research if harm is likely
Provide right to withdraw
Debrief participants
What is a bias sample
Where the sample collected is distorted in some way and does not represent the target population
What is meant by ‘generalising research’
Results from the sample can be applied to the target population
How is random sampling conducted
Every member of target population has equal chance of being picked
Names may be put in a hat
What is a strength of using random sampling
No bias
Increases chance sample will be representative
Generalisable
What is a weakness of using random sampling
Not practical
If a population is large or too small
What is systematic sampling
Every nth member of target population to form sample
E.g every 10th person on a register
What is a strength of using systematic sampling
There is no bias
Representative
Generalisable
What is a weakness of using systematic sampling
It is not truly unbiased unless you select your starting point randomly
What is stratified sampling
A small scale reproduction of the target population
Divide the target population into categories (E.g age)
Use random allocation to ensure one person from each category in the proportions they exist in the target population
What is a strength of using stratified sampling
There is no bias
Random selection uses relevant categories
Increases chance of stratified sampling being representative
Allows generalisations
What is a weakness of using stratified sampling
Requires a detailed knowledge of target population which may not be available
Time consuming
What is opportunity sampling
Researcher decides type of participant needed and approaches anyone who appears suitable
What is a strength of using opportunity sampling
It is relatively quick and convenient to collect
Not required to identify all members
What is a weakness of opportunity sampling
It is likely to be biased as it excludes certain types of participants
Makes it unrepresentative
Can not be generalised
What is volunteer sampling
Researcher advertises for participants
Participants chose themselves by replying to the advert
What is a strength of using volunteer sampling
Creating a sample fairly easy in comparison to other techniques as participants do not need to be found
What is a weakness of volunteer sampling
Likely to be biased as volunteers tend to be a certain kind of individual
Can not be generalised
Why is standard deviation better than the range
SD includes all data and is not affected by outliers
What is content analysis
A form of indirect observation
Research does not observe a person but artefacts they produced
Eg a diary
What are some examples of content analysis
Films
Diaries
Interviews
What do we record behaviour on during an observation
Behavioural grid
Does content analysis use qualitative or quantitative data
Quantitative
What is the 5 step procedure of content analysis
Data is collected
Researcher reads through or examines the data, makes themselves familiar
Researcher identifies coding units
Data is analysed by applying coding units
Tally is made of the numbers of times that a coding unit appears
What is an aim
A general statement outlining what the researcher intends to study
What is an independent variable
The variable being manipulated usually by the researcher
What is the dependant variable
The variable that is measured after it is influenced by the independent variable
What is an extraneous variables
A variable other than the IV that had manipulated the DV
What is a hypothesis
A testable statement which makes a prediction about the results.
What is an experimental hypothesis
This predicts the IV will have an effect on the DV
What is a confounding variable
A variable which may affect the DV and is not accounted for
What 3 factors are needed to use a parametric test
Homogeneity of variance
Normal distribution
Interval data
Define Reliability
How consistent the findings / measuring devices are
Something is said to be reliable if it produces consistently similar results
Define validity
The extent to which an effect results / measuring device are genuine or meaningful
Does it measure what it’s supposed to
What is internal validity
Concerned with what goes on in the study
Whether in an experiment the findings have been caused by the independent variable
What is external validity
The extent to which the findings can be generalised beyond the specific research
Ecological + Temporal
What is ecological validity
The extent to which findings from one study can be generalised to other settings
What is temporal validity
The extent to which findings from one study can be obtained at other times or in different historical era
How can you assess the reliability of a test (individual )
Test - retest
What is test - retest
Replicating the research and comparing the results with the original results
Correlate the two findings
What should the time be in between test-retests and why
2 weeks
Long enough to forget test
Short enough for personality to not change
How can we assess reliability using inter-observer reliability
2 or more observers record data from same participants situation
Use same behavioural grids
Correlate their results
What must a correlation coefficient be when assessing reliability
+0.8
Name the ways of assessing validity
Face validity
Concurrent validity
What is face validity (assessing validity)
Looking at it and confirming that it does measure what it claims
Ask an expert to look at it
What is concurrent validity
Checking whether the results from one test or scale are close to or match those obtained on another recognised measure of the same behaviour
What is a peer review
A process that contributes to the scientific status of psychology
Involved the scrutiny and checking of research by independent experts to act as quality assurance
Where/How is psychological work published
In a journal
What is a peer (peer assessment)
Someone working in the same field
What are the six steps of peer review
Researcher conducts research
Writes report
Report is sent for potential publication
Report sent for peer review
Sent back to editor
Editor makes final Desicion
What are the 7 purposes of peer review
Check that
- report is written in agreed format
- a good research design used
- written with enough detail to be reliable
- high quality
- not plagiarised
- adds to subject knowledge
- not fraudulent
What is thematic analysis
One way to generate qualitative data through themes in documents
What is a theme (thematic analysis)
Any idea that keeps occurring in the data.
Themes are more descriptive than behavioural categories
Explain the process of thematic analysis
Researcher starts with transcript of data
Read data
Get a feel of themes propping up (not predetermined)
Select these as themes
Select quotes to support
How is the reliability of content analysis checked
Inter rater reliability
Frequencies compared to degree of statement by correlation results
Must be a correlation of 0.8 to be reliable
3 strengths of content analysis
Uses artefacts that have been produced is a very ethical way to conduct research.
If the data is in the public domain permission does not have to be sought as the data already exists
High ecological validity, based on observations of real artefacts produced by people. Relevant to real like as it already exists and is not made for research purposes.
A flexible way to conduct research as it can lead to both quantitative and qualitative data. A practical way to investigate topic if we cannot manipulate IV
3 strengths of thematic analysis
Uses artefacts that have been produced is a very ethical way to conduct research.
If the data is in the public domain permission does not have to be sought as the data already exists
High ecological validity, based on observations of real artefacts produced by people. Relevant to real like as it already exists and is not made for research purposes.
A flexible way to conduct research as it can lead to both quantitative and qualitative data. A practical way to investigate topic if we cannot manipulate IV
2 weaknesses thematic analysis
Researcher bias possible
Different observers may interpret data differently. Artefacts may be studied out of context to which they were produced leading researchers to add their own interpretations of data
This leads to data analysis bring subjective and is a particular issue
Very difficult to replicate - unreliable as each reading is unique. Interpretations and subjective and therefore un-scientific analysis
1 weakness of content analysis
Observer bias possible
Different observers may interpret data differently. Artefacts may be studied out of context to which they were produced leading researchers to add their own interpretations of data
This leads to data analysis bring subjective and is a particular issue
What are the ways of assessing reliability
Test-retest
Inter observer reliability
Explain test- retest as a way of assessing reliability
A study is repeated using same participants two weeks later
If similar results found then findings reliable
Common way to assess reliability of tests, questionnaires, interviews
Can also be used to test reliability of experiments
Explain inter observer reliability as a way of assessing reliability
Assesses whether all researchers involved in a specific investigation are gathering consistent observations or ratings.
If similar results obtained then findings are reliable
To assess similar results
Two sets of data correlated using statistical test
Must have correlation of 0.8 or above
How can reliability be improved in experiments
Using standardised procedures to ensure the same procedures are used to measure dependant variable for all participants
More than one measurement from each participant and average score
How can reliability be improved in questionnaires or psychological tests
Ensure questions worded well - avoid leading or ambiguous questions that might persuade participants to provide different responses on different occasions
Replace open questions with closed questions
How can reliability be improved in interviews
Use the same interviewer for all participants to ensure studied in the same way
Ensure interviewers are properly trained to avoid leading participants
Ensure questions carefully worded, use structured interview where possible
How can reliability be improved for observational techniques
Ensure behavioural categories have been operationalised and do not overlap
Behavioural categories should cover all examples of behaviour being studied to same standard
Observes should be trained to use a coding system to ensure consistency
What is general standardisation
Everything is the same for every participant
What is meant for a test to have high concurrent validity
Where there is close agreement between the data produced by the new test and an already established test. Close agreement is when the correlation between the two sets exceeeds +0.8
What are the types of experiments
Laboratory
Field
Natural
Quasi
Explain what happens in a laboratory experiment
Takes place in a controlled setting
What is a strength and weakness of using a laboratory experiment
It is possible to control the environment making replication easier and increasing reliability
The environment is artificial meaning the behaviour seen may lack realism too
How do we check the reliability of content analysis
Analysts analyse material independently from each other using same coding units. Compare frequencies to see degree of agreement. Correlation coefficient must be +0.8 and above to be reliable
How do you conduct thematic analysis
Get transcript of data
Read data
Get a feel for themes popping up (not predetermined)
Select these as themes
Select quotes to support (qualitative)
Strengths of content and thematic analysis
Strength - ethical as use artifacts that have already been produced, if the artefact is in public domain do not have to get consent as data already exists.
Strength - High ecological validity based on observations of real artefacts produced by people relevant to real life as already exists and not made for research purposes
Weakness of content and thematic analysis
Thematic - difficult to replicate as each reading on text is unique to subjective interpretations. Un scientific
Thematic & content - low inter rater reliability - subjective different themes rated and interpreted differently
What is reliability
How much we can depend on a measurement or set of findings
How do we assess reliability
Test retest
Inter-observer reliability
What is the test retest method of assessing reliability
Study is repeated using same participants. If similar findings found then findings are reliable. It is necessary to consider amount of time that elapses between each year (10 days)
What is inter observer reliability
Way of assessing if observers are gathering consistent observations. If similar results are obtained by all researchers then findings are reliable. Inter observer results are correlated using statistical test and a correlation coefficient of +0.8 or above suggests reliability
How do we improve reliability in experiments
Use a standardised procedure to ensure same procedures are used to measure DV for all participants
Take more than one measurement from each participant and record average score
How do we improve reliability in questionnaires
Avoid leading questions
Replace open questions with closed questions
How do we improve reliability in interviews
Use the same interviewer
Insure interviewer is probably trained
Use structured interviews
How do we improve reliability in observational techniques
Ensure behavioural categories operationalised (coding unit)
All observes trained
What is validity
Concerned whether findings from a study are genuine and accurate
What is internal validity
Whether in an experiment the findings have been caused by the independent variable
What is ecological validity
Whether the context from one study can be generalised to other settings
What is temporal validity
The extent to which findings from one study can be obtained at other times
(Holding truth over time)
How do we assess validity
Face validity
Concurrent validity
What is face validity
Getting an expert to look at the test to confirm it measures what it’s claiming
What is concurrent validity
Comparing a test, measure or scale with an already established test using a correlation
How to improve validity in experiments
Use standardised procedure or double blind design
Use a control group
Use tasks participants would do everyday
How to improve validity in questionnaires
Allow participants to be anonymous to increase likely hood of honest response
How to improve validity in interviews
Ensure all interviewers are properly trained
How to improve validity in observational techniques
Conduct covert observations where possible
Ensure observers properly trained
What is the name of the table you put your results in, in chi squared
Contingency table
Why do we use a bar chart
Because the data is discrete non-continuous data
What should be in the title of the bar chart
What graph it is and both variables
e.g a bar chart to show responses by participant to a fair and unfair offer
What is a laboratory experiment
An environment that is specifically designed so the experiment can have full control over any extraneous variables which could possibly influence the results
What is a strength of using a laboratory experiment
High control over extraneous variables and the IV and DV are carefully operationalised which leads to greater validity and objectivity in research studies
Cause and effect can be determined since extraneous variables are controlled so only the variable responsible for any change in the DV will be the IV
lab experiments are easy to replicate due to standardised procedures meaning the experiment can be repeated to check consistency over time
What are weaknesses of laboratory experiments
Participants behaviour may be unnatural due to the high degree of control and therefore it may be difficult to generalise the results to other settings. Participants may show demand characteristics if they know they’re being watched
Possible ethical issues - deception from harm
What is a field experiment
The IV is deliberately manipulated by the experimenter, however the experiment takes place in a participants usual environment e.g school.
There is some control over extraneous variables although less than in a lab experiment. Participants tend to be unaware they are taking part in this type of experiment
What is a strength of field experiments
Participants behaviour is likely to be natural as participants are in their usual environment, therefore their behaviour is genuine
Reduced likelihood of demand characteristics, participants are not usually aware they are being tested so will be less likely to try and guess what behaviour is expected from them
What are weaknesses of field experiments
They can be difficult to replicate - due to low levels of control, this means it is difficult to repeat the study Exacrly to see if similar results can be obtained
Cause and effect is more difficult to determine - since not all extraneous variables are controlled
Possible ethical issues - consent, deception
What is a natural experiment
The IV has not been deliberately manipulated but has occurred naturally.
Take place in participants usual environment
No control over extraneous variables, participants not aware they’re taking part
What is a strength of natural experiments
Participants behaviour is natural
Reduced likelihood of demand characteristics
Allows the investigation of situations that are not usually possible
What are limitations of natural experiments
Difficult if not impossible to replicate due to lack of control
Cause and effect can not be determined
Possible ethical issues
What is a quasi experiment
The IV had not been deliberately manipulated by the experiment and had occurred naturally but the IV is a characteristic of the participant such as age
Takes place in artificial setting
e.g seeing if males or females do better in exams the IV is not manipulated
Strength of quasi experiments
Allows investigation of situations that are not usually possible
Limitation of quasi experiments
Cause and effect can be more difficult to determine since only some extraneous variables are controlled
What is an extraneous variable
A general term to describe any variable that affects the DV which is not the IV
What is a confounding variable
A specific example of extraneous variable, which is why variable which may affect the DV other than the IV
What are participant variables
Related to the participants involved eg age gender
Can be controlled by using repeated measures
What are demand characteristics
When participants are concious they are taking part in psychological research which may lead to them looking for cues about how they are expected to behave and behaving in that way
Can be controlled by using a single blind design
What are investigator effects
Anything a researcher does that has an effect on a participants performance in a study other than what was intended
Can be controlled through standardisation
What are order effects
Refers to order participants do conditions
Participants could do better in condition due to practice or worse due to boredom
Counterbalancing and randomisation could control this
What is standardisation
A way of controlling situational variables
Using a standardised procedure that keeps everything other than the IV the same
What is counterbalancing
A way to control order effects
If two conditions, half the participants complete condition A first and half complete condition B first
What is randomisation
A way to control order effects if there is more than two conditions
Randomly select particpants to complete each condition first
What is random allocation
A way to control participant variables
Participants allocated to group randomly
What is a single blind design
Participants are not made aware of the research aim or which experimental design they have been placed in which reduces the chances of them changing their behaviour to match what they think is expected of them - reduces demand characteristics
What is a pilot study
A small scale trial run of a study
What is the aim of a pilot study
To work out if certain aspects of the design work or need to be modified
4 things a researcher looks at in a pilot study
Whether participants understand instructions
Whether participants guess the sim of the study
Whether participants get bored
Timings and level of difficulty of tasks
What is a naturalistic observation
Observing behaviour in a natural setting
No attempt to influence the environment
Strength and weakness of naturalistic environments
Strength - participants behaviour likely to be natural
Weakness - researcher had little control, can be difficult to replicate
What is a controlled observation
Observing behaviour in a prepared situation created by the researcher
e.g AINSWORTH
What is a strength and weakness of controlled observations
Strength - researcher has good control over the situation
Weakness - participants behaviour may be unnatural
What is an overt observation
Participants are aware they are being observed
Strength and weakness of overt observations
Strength - more ethical than covert observations as participants know they are being watched
Weakness - participants may alter their behaviour which means their behaviour may not be a genuine reflection of how they act
What is a covert observation
When the participants are unaware they are being watched
Strength and weakness of covert observation
Strength - participants unaware they’re being watched so behaviour likely to be natural
Weakness - less ethical
What is a participant observation
The researcher becomes part of the group of people being observed
Strength and weakness of participant observation
Strength - data collected is likely to be accurate as researcher gets first hand insight into people’s life and setting
Weakness - data may lack validity as researcher may get too involved and find it difficult to observe group
What is a non participant observation
Researcher does not become part of the group and watches from a distance
Strength and weakness of non participant observation
Strength - data collected is likely to be valid as researcher is emotionally detached from group and participants behave naturally
Weakness - data may be immaculate as the meaning of the participants behaviour is not clear
What are behavioural categories
Observations need to be objectified so they can be measured and recorded so behaviour can be precisely defined and made observable
What are two types of sampling procedures
Event sampling
Time sampling
What is event sampling
Recording each time a specific behaviour occurs in individuals for example each time a person smiles in a 10 minute period
What is time sampling
Involves recording behaviour at set time intervals e.g every 3 minutes noting down what a student is doing
What is a meta analysis
Secondary data that combines large number of studies with similar research
Strength and weakness of meta analysis
Strength - volume of data analysed is much larger than us usually possible to collect by a researcher in one single investigation
Weakness - researcher may be biased in which data they select as it’s not usually possible to collect all of the data
What is an example of meta analysis
Izijendoorn and Kroonenberg in cultural attachment types
What are 3 characteristics of a normal distribution
Mean, median and mode are all in the exact midpoint
Distribution is symmetrical around this mid point
Dispersion scores either side of the mid point are consistent and can be expressed in standard deviation
What side is the skew if it is positively skewed
Highest point left and goes down
What side is the skew if it is negatively skewed
Starts flat and goes up, highest on right side
What is thematic analysis
One way to generate qualitative data
What are the 4 steps of thematic analysis
1) select data and spend time looking through it
2) get a feel for what themes appear in the data (a theme is any idea that is re-occurring through data)
3) once researcher has got a feel for themes, collect more data
4) research will be written up and where appropriate will include quotes to support themes identified
Strengths of thematic analysis
Very ethical way to research as artefacts in public domain do not require permission to be sought
High ecological validity based on observations of real artefacts produced by people
Flexible way to conduct research can lead to quantitative and qualitative research
Weakness of thematic analysis
Possibility of observer bias, different observers may interpret data differently. Artefacts may also be studied outside context it was produced for
May be difficult to replicate as each reading of the text is unique
How do we test reliability
Test retest
Inter observer reliability
What is test retest
Study repeated using same participants, two weeks after original study so participants can forget study but not change personality.
Findings are correlated and if correlation is above 0.8 it is reliable
How do we test reliability using inter observer reliability
More than one researcher compared whether they have gathered consistent findings by correlating their findings to see if there is a positive correlation of 0.&
How can reliability be improved in experiments
Standardised procedures - so same procedures used to measure dependant variable
Take more than one measurement from each participant and work our average score
How can reliability be improved in questionnaires
Avoid leading or ambiguous questions that might persuade participants to respond in a certain way
Replace open questions with closed questions so they are interpreted the same way by other researchers
How can reliability be improved in interviews
Use same interviewer for all participants
Ensure all interviewers have proper training to avoid leading participants
Ensure questions are carefully worded / if possible use a structured interview
How can reliability be improved in observational techniques
Ensure behavioural categories have been operationalised and do not overlap or cause confusion
Behavioural categories should cover all possible examples of the behaviour being studied
Observers should be trained to use a coding system which should be used consistently
How do we assess validity
Face validity
Concurrent validity
How do we improve validity in experiments
Use standardised procedures or double blind studies to reduce investigator effects
Use independent groups
Use a control group - so researcher can have a better idea if results are really due to the independent variable
How do we improve validity in questionnaires
Allow participants to remain anonymous to increase likelihood of honest responses
Only include questions thag measure what is supposed to be measured
How do we improve validity in interviews
Ensure all interviewers are properly trained
Only include questions that measure what is supposed to be measured
How do we improve validity in observational techniques
Conduct covert observations whwre possible as participants less likely to change behaviour
Ensure behavioural categories well operationalised so they measure the intended behaviour
Limit observer bias by ensuring observers are properly trained
How do we improve validity in qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews
Use direct quotes from participants
Triangulation - use servers methods to collect data
What are descriptive statistics
Provide summary of data collected eg mean range
What are descriptive statistics
Provide a summary of data collected e.g mean and range
Where would you plot the points on a distribution graph
Mode = highest point
Median = middle point
Mean = lowest point
How to do the sign test
1) subtract one column from the other and write whether it is a + or - number
2) add up total of + and -
3) least occurring sign is calculated value
4) N is number of participants after those who had difference of 0
5) compare calculated value with critical value
What are inferential statistics
Allows us to conclude whether any difference or relationshup found is statistically significant. Involves selecting an appropriate statistical test which allows researcher to determine likelihood results have occurred through chance.
At end of statistical test researcher will support one of their hypothesis and reject the other
What do statistical tests tell us
Whether difference or relationship between variables is statistically significant or due to chance
What is significance
A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong to enable a researcher to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis
What does it mean if results are statistically significant
Low probability the results are due to chance
What does it mean if results are statistically in-significant
High probability results are due to chance
What is probability
A numerical measure of the likelihood that certain events will occur
What is a significance level
A measure of probability
What is the most commonly selected significance level
5% or 0.005
If results are statistically significant the likelihood of their results Coming about through chance is equal to or less than 5%
What is a stringent level of significance
1% or 0.01
Results are statistically significant if likelihood of results being chsnce is equal to or less than 1%
What is the most lenient level of significance
10% or 0.1
Researcher finds results are statistically significant if the likelihood of their results coming about theough chance is equal to or less than 10%
In medical research what level of significance should be used
1% most stringent
What is a type 1 error
An error of optimists
Rejecting the bull hypothesis when there is a good possibility results are due to chance
Often cashed by using significance that is too lenient
What is a type 2 error
An error of pessimists
Supporting null hypothesis when there is a good possibility results where significant
Often caused by using a significant level that is so stringent
Why is the 5% level of significance generally accepted
Perfect balance between making a type one and type two error
Too lenient would make type 1 error and too stringent could make type two error.
5% is a compromise
What is nominal data
Data that appears in categories. Frequency data. Level of measurement that is least detailed
e.g number of males or females
What is ordinal data
Intervals between each value are unequal - for example positions in a running race.
We do not know the difference between first and second place
What is interval data
Can be ordered and intervals are equal
Example is temperature
What questions to ask when choosing statistical test
Test of difference or relationship
What experiment was used
Association or correlation
What level of data
What test is used looking for an association
Chi squared
What test is used looking for a correlation using ordinal data
Spearman’s rho
What test is used looking for a correlation at interval data
Pearson r
What test is used looking for a difference using ordinal data and repeated measures
Wilcoxon
What test is used looking for a difference independent groups nominal data
Chi squared
What test is used using independent groups looking for a difference with interval data
Unrelated t test
What are non parametric tests
Spearman’s rho
Wilcoxon
Mann whitney
Chi squared
Sign test
What are parametric tests
Perasons r
Related t test
Unrelated t test
When do we use the sign test
Looking for a difference between two conditions
Using recreated measures or matched pairs
Nominal data
What conditions must be satisfied to use a parametric test
Interval data
Normal distribution
Homogeneity of variance
How do you work out degrees of freedom
Number of columns - 1
times
Number of rows - 1
What needs to be included in consent forms
Purpose of the study
Length of time the participants will be required
Where the participants will need to be
Right to withdraw
Confidentiality
Protection from harm
What must be included in standardised instructions
Clear instructions
Procedure explained with no confusing terminology
Ask participants if they understand what they have to do
Participants can withdraw anytime
What do you include in a debriefing
Thank the participants for taking part
Explain the main aims of the study and where appropriate tell participants about any other groups of participants
Ask participants if they are happy for their data to be used in the investigation
Ask participants if they have questions
Ask participants if they would like a copy of the write up
What is qualitative research
Less formulaic than quantitive, greater variety within research.
Absence of statistical analysis
Unlikely to include hypothesis
What needs to be included when designing a study
Aims and hypothesis
Method
Participants
Procedures
Results
Why are graphs used
To pictorially summarise results and show trends or patterns
Why are bar charts used
To represent the frequencies on non continuous data
Why are histograms used
To represent continuous data
No gaps between bars
Why are scattergraphs used
To represent correlational data
No need to draw a line of best fit
What should be in the graph title
Reference to the graph
Type of relationship
Both variables
What is science
A systematic way of gaining knowledge through the use of empirical methods of investigation
What are the 8 features of science
Construct a theory
Hypothesis testing
Objectivity
Replicability
Empirical method
Falsifiability
Paradigms
Paradigms shift
What is hypothesis testing
A feature of science that predicts what is believed to be true.
This is then investigated to see if researcher was correct
What is objectivity
Feature of science
Information gathered from investigation is not influenced in anyway by the person who carries out the research & information does not need to be interpreted
What is replicability
Feature of science
Being able to copy an investigation using same methods and procedures to see if findings are similar. Ideally similar findings should be found
What is theory construction
A framework / explanation for describing a phenomenon, may be based on observations about the world or empirical data derived from hypothesis testing.
If hypothesis is repeatedly tested and results consistently support hypothesis a theory is constructed that explains behaviour
What is falsifiability
Popper said even if a theory had been tested and supported many times we can not say the theory is true. It is just enhancing our knowledge
Popper said ‘a good scientific theory’ can be tested to see if it’s false
This is why we do not use phrases such as ‘this proves’
What are paradigms and paradigms shifts
A paradigm is a shared set of assumptions or beliefs on how behaviour is studied or explained
Progress occurs when a small number of scientists begin to question an existing paradigm and then provide evidence against it. When enough evidence has been put forward change will occur. This is a paradigm shift
Discuss whether scientific method is appropriate for psychology
- uses scientific models gives it more credibility
- scientific method gives psychology practical applications
- conventional scientific research tends to involve studying people in artificial environments which is unnatural
- scientific method emphasised control which is almost impossible with people
- critics claim objectivity in psychological research is impossible
What are limitations of peer review
- in some cases it does not detect Freud or malpractice
- can suffer from bias towards positive findings. Negative findings are rarely published. Leads to important findings not being published. The file drawer problem
Bias in favour of established research areas
Time consuming and expensive can take months of years to publish, delaying publication of important findings
How does research effect the economy
Reduced cost on judicial system and NHS. Potential reduction in crimes and catching more offenders from cog interview
Attachment - flexible working arrangements adopted eg father csn take on most of childcare and work part time if mother earns more - maximise income and contribute more to economy
Mental illness - therapies people stay in work economy
What are the sections in order in a scientific report
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
What is included in an abstract of a scientific report
Summary (200 words) of whole report
Include:
Aims and hypotheses
Background research
Method
Results
Conclusions
How do you work out percentage increase
Difference divided by original times 100
How to work out percentage decrease
Starting value - ending value divided by starting value times 100
What does standard deviation measure
Consistency
