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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

How do you work out the mean

A

Add all the values together then divide by the number of values

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2
Q

What’s a strength of using mean as a measure of central tendency

A

More sensitive as it uses all score and not just a select few

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3
Q

What’s a weakness of using mean as a measure of central tendency

A

Can be easily distorted if there is outliers and therefore be unrepresentative

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4
Q

How do you work out the median as a central tendency

A

All the values are arranged into order and the middle value is the median

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5
Q

What is a strength of using the median

A

It’s not affected by outliers so still representative

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6
Q

What’s a weakness of using a median as a central tendency

A

May not be representative as does not take into account all data

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7
Q

How do you work out the mode

A

The most frequent recurring number

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8
Q

What’s a strength with using the mode

A

Not effected by outliers

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9
Q

What’s a weakness of using a mode

A

Can be unrepresentative and there isn’t always a mode

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10
Q

How do you work out the range

A

The highest number takeaway the lowest number

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11
Q

What’s a strength of using the range as a measure of central tendency

A

It gives a basic indication of the spread of scores

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12
Q

What’s a weakness of using the range as a measure of dispersion

A

Does not indicate how groups are scored around the mean

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13
Q

What is a self report

A

Any method where a person is asked to state or explain their own thoughts/feelings

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14
Q

What are ethical concerns?

A

Withdraw
Consent
Confidentiality
Deception
Protection from harm and abuse

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15
Q

How can we ensure consent is given

A

Obtain prior general consent - inform the participant they will not be told everything and may be deceived

Obtain fully informed consent - ask the participants to formally consent to the research after being given comprehensive details about the aims and procedures

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16
Q

How can we ensure we do not decept people

A

After the research is completed inform participants of the true aims of the research and debrief the participants so they know they can leave the research

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17
Q

How can we ensure people know they have the right to withdraw

A

Provide people with the right to withdraw at any point in the study

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18
Q

How do we maintain confidentiality

A

Avoid collecting personal details from participants

Maintain anonymity - false names or numbers to identify participants

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19
Q

How do we ensure participants in a study are protected from harm

A

Terminate research if harm is likely

Provide right to withdraw

Debrief participants

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20
Q

What is a bias sample

A

Where the sample collected is distorted in some way and does not represent the target population

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21
Q

What is meant by ‘generalising research’

A

Results from the sample can be applied to the target population

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22
Q

How is random sampling conducted

A

Every member of target population has equal chance of being picked

Names may be put in a hat

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23
Q

What is a strength of using random sampling

A

No bias

Increases chance sample will be representative

Generalisable

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24
Q

What is a weakness of using random sampling

A

Not practical
If a population is large or too small

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25
Q

What is systematic sampling

A

Every nth member of target population to form sample
E.g every 10th person on a register

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26
Q

What is a strength of using systematic sampling

A

There is no bias
Representative
Generalisable

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27
Q

What is a weakness of using systematic sampling

A

It is not truly unbiased unless you select your starting point randomly

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28
Q

What is stratified sampling

A

A small scale reproduction of the target population
Divide the target population into categories (E.g age)
Use random allocation to ensure one person from each category in the proportions they exist in the target population

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29
Q

What is a strength of using stratified sampling

A

There is no bias
Random selection uses relevant categories
Increases chance of stratified sampling being representative
Allows generalisations

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30
Q

What is a weakness of using stratified sampling

A

Requires a detailed knowledge of target population which may not be available

Time consuming

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31
Q

What is opportunity sampling

A

Researcher decides type of participant needed and approaches anyone who appears suitable

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32
Q

What is a strength of using opportunity sampling

A

It is relatively quick and convenient to collect
Not required to identify all members

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33
Q

What is a weakness of opportunity sampling

A

It is likely to be biased as it excludes certain types of participants

Makes it unrepresentative

Can not be generalised

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34
Q

What is volunteer sampling

A

Researcher advertises for participants

Participants chose themselves by replying to the advert

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35
Q

What is a strength of using volunteer sampling

A

Creating a sample fairly easy in comparison to other techniques as participants do not need to be found

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36
Q

What is a weakness of volunteer sampling

A

Likely to be biased as volunteers tend to be a certain kind of individual

Can not be generalised

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37
Q

Why is standard deviation better than the range

A

SD includes all data and is not affected by outliers

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38
Q

What is content analysis

A

A form of indirect observation
Research does not observe a person but artefacts they produced
Eg a diary

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39
Q

What are some examples of content analysis

A

Films
Diaries
Interviews

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40
Q

What do we record behaviour on during an observation

A

Behavioural grid

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41
Q

Does content analysis use qualitative or quantitative data

A

Quantitative

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42
Q

What is the 5 step procedure of content analysis

A

Data is collected

Researcher reads through or examines the data, makes themselves familiar

Researcher identifies coding units

Data is analysed by applying coding units

Tally is made of the numbers of times that a coding unit appears

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43
Q

What is an aim

A

A general statement outlining what the researcher intends to study

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44
Q

What is an independent variable

A

The variable being manipulated usually by the researcher

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45
Q

What is the dependant variable

A

The variable that is measured after it is influenced by the independent variable

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46
Q

What is an extraneous variables

A

A variable other than the IV that had manipulated the DV

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47
Q

What is a hypothesis

A

A testable statement which makes a prediction about the results.

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48
Q

What is an experimental hypothesis

A

This predicts the IV will have an effect on the DV

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49
Q

What is a confounding variable

A

A variable which may affect the DV and is not accounted for

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50
Q

What 3 factors are needed to use a parametric test

A

Homogeneity of variance
Normal distribution
Interval data

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51
Q

Define Reliability

A

How consistent the findings / measuring devices are

Something is said to be reliable if it produces consistently similar results

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52
Q

Define validity

A

The extent to which an effect results / measuring device are genuine or meaningful

Does it measure what it’s supposed to

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53
Q

What is internal validity

A

Concerned with what goes on in the study

Whether in an experiment the findings have been caused by the independent variable

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54
Q

What is external validity

A

The extent to which the findings can be generalised beyond the specific research

Ecological + Temporal

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55
Q

What is ecological validity

A

The extent to which findings from one study can be generalised to other settings

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56
Q

What is temporal validity

A

The extent to which findings from one study can be obtained at other times or in different historical era

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57
Q

How can you assess the reliability of a test (individual )

A

Test - retest

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58
Q

What is test - retest

A

Replicating the research and comparing the results with the original results

Correlate the two findings

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59
Q

What should the time be in between test-retests and why

A

2 weeks

Long enough to forget test
Short enough for personality to not change

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60
Q

How can we assess reliability using inter-observer reliability

A

2 or more observers record data from same participants situation

Use same behavioural grids

Correlate their results

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61
Q

What must a correlation coefficient be when assessing reliability

A

+0.8

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62
Q

Name the ways of assessing validity

A

Face validity

Concurrent validity

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63
Q

What is face validity (assessing validity)

A

Looking at it and confirming that it does measure what it claims

Ask an expert to look at it

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64
Q

What is concurrent validity

A

Checking whether the results from one test or scale are close to or match those obtained on another recognised measure of the same behaviour

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65
Q

What is a peer review

A

A process that contributes to the scientific status of psychology

Involved the scrutiny and checking of research by independent experts to act as quality assurance

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66
Q

Where/How is psychological work published

A

In a journal

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67
Q

What is a peer (peer assessment)

A

Someone working in the same field

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68
Q

What are the six steps of peer review

A

Researcher conducts research

Writes report

Report is sent for potential publication

Report sent for peer review

Sent back to editor

Editor makes final Desicion

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69
Q

What are the 7 purposes of peer review

A

Check that
- report is written in agreed format
- a good research design used
- written with enough detail to be reliable
- high quality
- not plagiarised
- adds to subject knowledge
- not fraudulent

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70
Q

What is thematic analysis

A

One way to generate qualitative data through themes in documents

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71
Q

What is a theme (thematic analysis)

A

Any idea that keeps occurring in the data.
Themes are more descriptive than behavioural categories

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72
Q

Explain the process of thematic analysis

A

Researcher starts with transcript of data

Read data

Get a feel of themes propping up (not predetermined)

Select these as themes

Select quotes to support

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73
Q

How is the reliability of content analysis checked

A

Inter rater reliability

Frequencies compared to degree of statement by correlation results

Must be a correlation of 0.8 to be reliable

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74
Q

3 strengths of content analysis

A

Uses artefacts that have been produced is a very ethical way to conduct research.
If the data is in the public domain permission does not have to be sought as the data already exists

High ecological validity, based on observations of real artefacts produced by people. Relevant to real like as it already exists and is not made for research purposes.

A flexible way to conduct research as it can lead to both quantitative and qualitative data. A practical way to investigate topic if we cannot manipulate IV

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75
Q

3 strengths of thematic analysis

A

Uses artefacts that have been produced is a very ethical way to conduct research.
If the data is in the public domain permission does not have to be sought as the data already exists

High ecological validity, based on observations of real artefacts produced by people. Relevant to real like as it already exists and is not made for research purposes.

A flexible way to conduct research as it can lead to both quantitative and qualitative data. A practical way to investigate topic if we cannot manipulate IV

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76
Q

2 weaknesses thematic analysis

A

Researcher bias possible
Different observers may interpret data differently. Artefacts may be studied out of context to which they were produced leading researchers to add their own interpretations of data
This leads to data analysis bring subjective and is a particular issue

Very difficult to replicate - unreliable as each reading is unique. Interpretations and subjective and therefore un-scientific analysis

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77
Q

1 weakness of content analysis

A

Observer bias possible
Different observers may interpret data differently. Artefacts may be studied out of context to which they were produced leading researchers to add their own interpretations of data
This leads to data analysis bring subjective and is a particular issue

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78
Q

What are the ways of assessing reliability

A

Test-retest

Inter observer reliability

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79
Q

Explain test- retest as a way of assessing reliability

A

A study is repeated using same participants two weeks later

If similar results found then findings reliable

Common way to assess reliability of tests, questionnaires, interviews
Can also be used to test reliability of experiments

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80
Q

Explain inter observer reliability as a way of assessing reliability

A

Assesses whether all researchers involved in a specific investigation are gathering consistent observations or ratings.
If similar results obtained then findings are reliable

To assess similar results
Two sets of data correlated using statistical test

Must have correlation of 0.8 or above

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81
Q

How can reliability be improved in experiments

A

Using standardised procedures to ensure the same procedures are used to measure dependant variable for all participants

More than one measurement from each participant and average score

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82
Q

How can reliability be improved in questionnaires or psychological tests

A

Ensure questions worded well - avoid leading or ambiguous questions that might persuade participants to provide different responses on different occasions

Replace open questions with closed questions

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83
Q

How can reliability be improved in interviews

A

Use the same interviewer for all participants to ensure studied in the same way

Ensure interviewers are properly trained to avoid leading participants

Ensure questions carefully worded, use structured interview where possible

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84
Q

How can reliability be improved for observational techniques

A

Ensure behavioural categories have been operationalised and do not overlap

Behavioural categories should cover all examples of behaviour being studied to same standard

Observes should be trained to use a coding system to ensure consistency

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85
Q

What is general standardisation

A

Everything is the same for every participant

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86
Q

What is meant for a test to have high concurrent validity

A

Where there is close agreement between the data produced by the new test and an already established test. Close agreement is when the correlation between the two sets exceeeds +0.8

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87
Q

What are the types of experiments

A

Laboratory
Field
Natural
Quasi

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88
Q

Explain what happens in a laboratory experiment

A

Takes place in a controlled setting

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89
Q

What is a strength and weakness of using a laboratory experiment

A

It is possible to control the environment making replication easier and increasing reliability

The environment is artificial meaning the behaviour seen may lack realism too

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90
Q

How do we check the reliability of content analysis

A

Analysts analyse material independently from each other using same coding units. Compare frequencies to see degree of agreement. Correlation coefficient must be +0.8 and above to be reliable

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91
Q

How do you conduct thematic analysis

A

Get transcript of data

Read data

Get a feel for themes popping up (not predetermined)

Select these as themes

Select quotes to support (qualitative)

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92
Q

Strengths of content and thematic analysis

A

Strength - ethical as use artifacts that have already been produced, if the artefact is in public domain do not have to get consent as data already exists.

Strength - High ecological validity based on observations of real artefacts produced by people relevant to real life as already exists and not made for research purposes

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93
Q

Weakness of content and thematic analysis

A

Thematic - difficult to replicate as each reading on text is unique to subjective interpretations. Un scientific

Thematic & content - low inter rater reliability - subjective different themes rated and interpreted differently

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94
Q

What is reliability

A

How much we can depend on a measurement or set of findings

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95
Q

How do we assess reliability

A

Test retest

Inter-observer reliability

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96
Q

What is the test retest method of assessing reliability

A

Study is repeated using same participants. If similar findings found then findings are reliable. It is necessary to consider amount of time that elapses between each year (10 days)

97
Q

What is inter observer reliability

A

Way of assessing if observers are gathering consistent observations. If similar results are obtained by all researchers then findings are reliable. Inter observer results are correlated using statistical test and a correlation coefficient of +0.8 or above suggests reliability

98
Q

How do we improve reliability in experiments

A

Use a standardised procedure to ensure same procedures are used to measure DV for all participants

Take more than one measurement from each participant and record average score

99
Q

How do we improve reliability in questionnaires

A

Avoid leading questions

Replace open questions with closed questions

100
Q

How do we improve reliability in interviews

A

Use the same interviewer

Insure interviewer is probably trained

Use structured interviews

101
Q

How do we improve reliability in observational techniques

A

Ensure behavioural categories operationalised (coding unit)

All observes trained

102
Q

What is validity

A

Concerned whether findings from a study are genuine and accurate

103
Q

What is internal validity

A

Whether in an experiment the findings have been caused by the independent variable

104
Q

What is ecological validity

A

Whether the context from one study can be generalised to other settings

105
Q

What is temporal validity

A

The extent to which findings from one study can be obtained at other times
(Holding truth over time)

106
Q

How do we assess validity

A

Face validity
Concurrent validity

107
Q

What is face validity

A

Getting an expert to look at the test to confirm it measures what it’s claiming

108
Q

What is concurrent validity

A

Comparing a test, measure or scale with an already established test using a correlation

109
Q

How to improve validity in experiments

A

Use standardised procedure or double blind design

Use a control group

Use tasks participants would do everyday

110
Q

How to improve validity in questionnaires

A

Allow participants to be anonymous to increase likely hood of honest response

111
Q

How to improve validity in interviews

A

Ensure all interviewers are properly trained

112
Q

How to improve validity in observational techniques

A

Conduct covert observations where possible

Ensure observers properly trained

113
Q

What is the name of the table you put your results in, in chi squared

A

Contingency table

114
Q

Why do we use a bar chart

A

Because the data is discrete non-continuous data

115
Q

What should be in the title of the bar chart

A

What graph it is and both variables

e.g a bar chart to show responses by participant to a fair and unfair offer

116
Q

What is a laboratory experiment

A

An environment that is specifically designed so the experiment can have full control over any extraneous variables which could possibly influence the results

117
Q

What is a strength of using a laboratory experiment

A

High control over extraneous variables and the IV and DV are carefully operationalised which leads to greater validity and objectivity in research studies

Cause and effect can be determined since extraneous variables are controlled so only the variable responsible for any change in the DV will be the IV

lab experiments are easy to replicate due to standardised procedures meaning the experiment can be repeated to check consistency over time

118
Q

What are weaknesses of laboratory experiments

A

Participants behaviour may be unnatural due to the high degree of control and therefore it may be difficult to generalise the results to other settings. Participants may show demand characteristics if they know they’re being watched

Possible ethical issues - deception from harm

119
Q

What is a field experiment

A

The IV is deliberately manipulated by the experimenter, however the experiment takes place in a participants usual environment e.g school.

There is some control over extraneous variables although less than in a lab experiment. Participants tend to be unaware they are taking part in this type of experiment

120
Q

What is a strength of field experiments

A

Participants behaviour is likely to be natural as participants are in their usual environment, therefore their behaviour is genuine

Reduced likelihood of demand characteristics, participants are not usually aware they are being tested so will be less likely to try and guess what behaviour is expected from them

121
Q

What are weaknesses of field experiments

A

They can be difficult to replicate - due to low levels of control, this means it is difficult to repeat the study Exacrly to see if similar results can be obtained

Cause and effect is more difficult to determine - since not all extraneous variables are controlled

Possible ethical issues - consent, deception

122
Q

What is a natural experiment

A

The IV has not been deliberately manipulated but has occurred naturally.
Take place in participants usual environment
No control over extraneous variables, participants not aware they’re taking part

123
Q

What is a strength of natural experiments

A

Participants behaviour is natural

Reduced likelihood of demand characteristics

Allows the investigation of situations that are not usually possible

124
Q

What are limitations of natural experiments

A

Difficult if not impossible to replicate due to lack of control

Cause and effect can not be determined

Possible ethical issues

125
Q

What is a quasi experiment

A

The IV had not been deliberately manipulated by the experiment and had occurred naturally but the IV is a characteristic of the participant such as age

Takes place in artificial setting

e.g seeing if males or females do better in exams the IV is not manipulated

126
Q

Strength of quasi experiments

A

Allows investigation of situations that are not usually possible

127
Q

Limitation of quasi experiments

A

Cause and effect can be more difficult to determine since only some extraneous variables are controlled

128
Q

What is an extraneous variable

A

A general term to describe any variable that affects the DV which is not the IV

129
Q

What is a confounding variable

A

A specific example of extraneous variable, which is why variable which may affect the DV other than the IV

130
Q

What are participant variables

A

Related to the participants involved eg age gender

Can be controlled by using repeated measures

131
Q

What are demand characteristics

A

When participants are concious they are taking part in psychological research which may lead to them looking for cues about how they are expected to behave and behaving in that way

Can be controlled by using a single blind design

132
Q

What are investigator effects

A

Anything a researcher does that has an effect on a participants performance in a study other than what was intended

Can be controlled through standardisation

133
Q

What are order effects

A

Refers to order participants do conditions
Participants could do better in condition due to practice or worse due to boredom

Counterbalancing and randomisation could control this

134
Q

What is standardisation

A

A way of controlling situational variables
Using a standardised procedure that keeps everything other than the IV the same

135
Q

What is counterbalancing

A

A way to control order effects

If two conditions, half the participants complete condition A first and half complete condition B first

136
Q

What is randomisation

A

A way to control order effects if there is more than two conditions
Randomly select particpants to complete each condition first

137
Q

What is random allocation

A

A way to control participant variables

Participants allocated to group randomly

138
Q

What is a single blind design

A

Participants are not made aware of the research aim or which experimental design they have been placed in which reduces the chances of them changing their behaviour to match what they think is expected of them - reduces demand characteristics

139
Q

What is a pilot study

A

A small scale trial run of a study

140
Q

What is the aim of a pilot study

A

To work out if certain aspects of the design work or need to be modified

141
Q

4 things a researcher looks at in a pilot study

A

Whether participants understand instructions

Whether participants guess the sim of the study

Whether participants get bored

Timings and level of difficulty of tasks

142
Q

What is a naturalistic observation

A

Observing behaviour in a natural setting

No attempt to influence the environment

143
Q

Strength and weakness of naturalistic environments

A

Strength - participants behaviour likely to be natural

Weakness - researcher had little control, can be difficult to replicate

144
Q

What is a controlled observation

A

Observing behaviour in a prepared situation created by the researcher
e.g AINSWORTH

145
Q

What is a strength and weakness of controlled observations

A

Strength - researcher has good control over the situation

Weakness - participants behaviour may be unnatural

146
Q

What is an overt observation

A

Participants are aware they are being observed

147
Q

Strength and weakness of overt observations

A

Strength - more ethical than covert observations as participants know they are being watched

Weakness - participants may alter their behaviour which means their behaviour may not be a genuine reflection of how they act

148
Q

What is a covert observation

A

When the participants are unaware they are being watched

149
Q

Strength and weakness of covert observation

A

Strength - participants unaware they’re being watched so behaviour likely to be natural

Weakness - less ethical

150
Q

What is a participant observation

A

The researcher becomes part of the group of people being observed

151
Q

Strength and weakness of participant observation

A

Strength - data collected is likely to be accurate as researcher gets first hand insight into people’s life and setting

Weakness - data may lack validity as researcher may get too involved and find it difficult to observe group

152
Q

What is a non participant observation

A

Researcher does not become part of the group and watches from a distance

153
Q

Strength and weakness of non participant observation

A

Strength - data collected is likely to be valid as researcher is emotionally detached from group and participants behave naturally

Weakness - data may be immaculate as the meaning of the participants behaviour is not clear

154
Q

What are behavioural categories

A

Observations need to be objectified so they can be measured and recorded so behaviour can be precisely defined and made observable

155
Q

What are two types of sampling procedures

A

Event sampling

Time sampling

156
Q

What is event sampling

A

Recording each time a specific behaviour occurs in individuals for example each time a person smiles in a 10 minute period

157
Q

What is time sampling

A

Involves recording behaviour at set time intervals e.g every 3 minutes noting down what a student is doing

158
Q

What is a meta analysis

A

Secondary data that combines large number of studies with similar research

159
Q

Strength and weakness of meta analysis

A

Strength - volume of data analysed is much larger than us usually possible to collect by a researcher in one single investigation

Weakness - researcher may be biased in which data they select as it’s not usually possible to collect all of the data

160
Q

What is an example of meta analysis

A

Izijendoorn and Kroonenberg in cultural attachment types

161
Q

What are 3 characteristics of a normal distribution

A

Mean, median and mode are all in the exact midpoint

Distribution is symmetrical around this mid point

Dispersion scores either side of the mid point are consistent and can be expressed in standard deviation

162
Q

What side is the skew if it is positively skewed

A

Highest point left and goes down

163
Q

What side is the skew if it is negatively skewed

A

Starts flat and goes up, highest on right side

164
Q

What is thematic analysis

A

One way to generate qualitative data

165
Q

What are the 4 steps of thematic analysis

A

1) select data and spend time looking through it

2) get a feel for what themes appear in the data (a theme is any idea that is re-occurring through data)

3) once researcher has got a feel for themes, collect more data

4) research will be written up and where appropriate will include quotes to support themes identified

166
Q

Strengths of thematic analysis

A

Very ethical way to research as artefacts in public domain do not require permission to be sought

High ecological validity based on observations of real artefacts produced by people

Flexible way to conduct research can lead to quantitative and qualitative research

167
Q

Weakness of thematic analysis

A

Possibility of observer bias, different observers may interpret data differently. Artefacts may also be studied outside context it was produced for

May be difficult to replicate as each reading of the text is unique

168
Q

How do we test reliability

A

Test retest

Inter observer reliability

169
Q

What is test retest

A

Study repeated using same participants, two weeks after original study so participants can forget study but not change personality.

Findings are correlated and if correlation is above 0.8 it is reliable

170
Q

How do we test reliability using inter observer reliability

A

More than one researcher compared whether they have gathered consistent findings by correlating their findings to see if there is a positive correlation of 0.&

171
Q

How can reliability be improved in experiments

A

Standardised procedures - so same procedures used to measure dependant variable

Take more than one measurement from each participant and work our average score

172
Q

How can reliability be improved in questionnaires

A

Avoid leading or ambiguous questions that might persuade participants to respond in a certain way

Replace open questions with closed questions so they are interpreted the same way by other researchers

173
Q

How can reliability be improved in interviews

A

Use same interviewer for all participants

Ensure all interviewers have proper training to avoid leading participants

Ensure questions are carefully worded / if possible use a structured interview

174
Q

How can reliability be improved in observational techniques

A

Ensure behavioural categories have been operationalised and do not overlap or cause confusion

Behavioural categories should cover all possible examples of the behaviour being studied

Observers should be trained to use a coding system which should be used consistently

175
Q

How do we assess validity

A

Face validity

Concurrent validity

176
Q

How do we improve validity in experiments

A

Use standardised procedures or double blind studies to reduce investigator effects

Use independent groups

Use a control group - so researcher can have a better idea if results are really due to the independent variable

177
Q

How do we improve validity in questionnaires

A

Allow participants to remain anonymous to increase likelihood of honest responses

Only include questions thag measure what is supposed to be measured

178
Q

How do we improve validity in interviews

A

Ensure all interviewers are properly trained

Only include questions that measure what is supposed to be measured

179
Q

How do we improve validity in observational techniques

A

Conduct covert observations whwre possible as participants less likely to change behaviour

Ensure behavioural categories well operationalised so they measure the intended behaviour

Limit observer bias by ensuring observers are properly trained

180
Q

How do we improve validity in qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews

A

Use direct quotes from participants

Triangulation - use servers methods to collect data

181
Q

What are descriptive statistics

A

Provide summary of data collected eg mean range

182
Q

What are descriptive statistics

A

Provide a summary of data collected e.g mean and range

183
Q

Where would you plot the points on a distribution graph

A

Mode = highest point
Median = middle point
Mean = lowest point

184
Q

How to do the sign test

A

1) subtract one column from the other and write whether it is a + or - number

2) add up total of + and -

3) least occurring sign is calculated value

4) N is number of participants after those who had difference of 0

5) compare calculated value with critical value

185
Q

What are inferential statistics

A

Allows us to conclude whether any difference or relationshup found is statistically significant. Involves selecting an appropriate statistical test which allows researcher to determine likelihood results have occurred through chance.

At end of statistical test researcher will support one of their hypothesis and reject the other

186
Q

What do statistical tests tell us

A

Whether difference or relationship between variables is statistically significant or due to chance

187
Q

What is significance

A

A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong to enable a researcher to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis

188
Q

What does it mean if results are statistically significant

A

Low probability the results are due to chance

189
Q

What does it mean if results are statistically in-significant

A

High probability results are due to chance

190
Q

What is probability

A

A numerical measure of the likelihood that certain events will occur

191
Q

What is a significance level

A

A measure of probability

192
Q

What is the most commonly selected significance level

A

5% or 0.005

If results are statistically significant the likelihood of their results Coming about through chance is equal to or less than 5%

193
Q

What is a stringent level of significance

A

1% or 0.01
Results are statistically significant if likelihood of results being chsnce is equal to or less than 1%

194
Q

What is the most lenient level of significance

A

10% or 0.1

Researcher finds results are statistically significant if the likelihood of their results coming about theough chance is equal to or less than 10%

195
Q

In medical research what level of significance should be used

A

1% most stringent

196
Q

What is a type 1 error

A

An error of optimists

Rejecting the bull hypothesis when there is a good possibility results are due to chance

Often cashed by using significance that is too lenient

197
Q

What is a type 2 error

A

An error of pessimists

Supporting null hypothesis when there is a good possibility results where significant

Often caused by using a significant level that is so stringent

198
Q

Why is the 5% level of significance generally accepted

A

Perfect balance between making a type one and type two error

Too lenient would make type 1 error and too stringent could make type two error.

5% is a compromise

199
Q

What is nominal data

A

Data that appears in categories. Frequency data. Level of measurement that is least detailed

e.g number of males or females

200
Q

What is ordinal data

A

Intervals between each value are unequal - for example positions in a running race.
We do not know the difference between first and second place

201
Q

What is interval data

A

Can be ordered and intervals are equal
Example is temperature

202
Q

What questions to ask when choosing statistical test

A

Test of difference or relationship

What experiment was used

Association or correlation

What level of data

203
Q

What test is used looking for an association

A

Chi squared

204
Q

What test is used looking for a correlation using ordinal data

A

Spearman’s rho

205
Q

What test is used looking for a correlation at interval data

A

Pearson r

206
Q

What test is used looking for a difference using ordinal data and repeated measures

A

Wilcoxon

207
Q

What test is used looking for a difference independent groups nominal data

A

Chi squared

208
Q

What test is used using independent groups looking for a difference with interval data

A

Unrelated t test

209
Q

What are non parametric tests

A

Spearman’s rho
Wilcoxon
Mann whitney
Chi squared
Sign test

210
Q

What are parametric tests

A

Perasons r
Related t test
Unrelated t test

211
Q

When do we use the sign test

A

Looking for a difference between two conditions

Using recreated measures or matched pairs

Nominal data

212
Q

What conditions must be satisfied to use a parametric test

A

Interval data

Normal distribution

Homogeneity of variance

213
Q

How do you work out degrees of freedom

A

Number of columns - 1
times
Number of rows - 1

214
Q

What needs to be included in consent forms

A

Purpose of the study

Length of time the participants will be required

Where the participants will need to be

Right to withdraw

Confidentiality

Protection from harm

215
Q

What must be included in standardised instructions

A

Clear instructions

Procedure explained with no confusing terminology

Ask participants if they understand what they have to do

Participants can withdraw anytime

216
Q

What do you include in a debriefing

A

Thank the participants for taking part

Explain the main aims of the study and where appropriate tell participants about any other groups of participants

Ask participants if they are happy for their data to be used in the investigation

Ask participants if they have questions

Ask participants if they would like a copy of the write up

217
Q

What is qualitative research

A

Less formulaic than quantitive, greater variety within research.

Absence of statistical analysis

Unlikely to include hypothesis

218
Q

What needs to be included when designing a study

A

Aims and hypothesis

Method

Participants

Procedures

Results

219
Q

Why are graphs used

A

To pictorially summarise results and show trends or patterns

220
Q

Why are bar charts used

A

To represent the frequencies on non continuous data

221
Q

Why are histograms used

A

To represent continuous data

No gaps between bars

222
Q

Why are scattergraphs used

A

To represent correlational data
No need to draw a line of best fit

223
Q

What should be in the graph title

A

Reference to the graph

Type of relationship

Both variables

224
Q

What is science

A

A systematic way of gaining knowledge through the use of empirical methods of investigation

225
Q

What are the 8 features of science

A

Construct a theory

Hypothesis testing

Objectivity

Replicability

Empirical method

Falsifiability

Paradigms

Paradigms shift

226
Q

What is hypothesis testing

A

A feature of science that predicts what is believed to be true.
This is then investigated to see if researcher was correct

227
Q

What is objectivity

A

Feature of science
Information gathered from investigation is not influenced in anyway by the person who carries out the research & information does not need to be interpreted

228
Q

What is replicability

A

Feature of science

Being able to copy an investigation using same methods and procedures to see if findings are similar. Ideally similar findings should be found

229
Q

What is theory construction

A

A framework / explanation for describing a phenomenon, may be based on observations about the world or empirical data derived from hypothesis testing.

If hypothesis is repeatedly tested and results consistently support hypothesis a theory is constructed that explains behaviour

230
Q

What is falsifiability

A

Popper said even if a theory had been tested and supported many times we can not say the theory is true. It is just enhancing our knowledge

Popper said ‘a good scientific theory’ can be tested to see if it’s false

This is why we do not use phrases such as ‘this proves’

231
Q

What are paradigms and paradigms shifts

A

A paradigm is a shared set of assumptions or beliefs on how behaviour is studied or explained

Progress occurs when a small number of scientists begin to question an existing paradigm and then provide evidence against it. When enough evidence has been put forward change will occur. This is a paradigm shift

232
Q

Discuss whether scientific method is appropriate for psychology

A
  • uses scientific models gives it more credibility
  • scientific method gives psychology practical applications
  • conventional scientific research tends to involve studying people in artificial environments which is unnatural
  • scientific method emphasised control which is almost impossible with people
  • critics claim objectivity in psychological research is impossible
233
Q

What are limitations of peer review

A
  • in some cases it does not detect Freud or malpractice
  • can suffer from bias towards positive findings. Negative findings are rarely published. Leads to important findings not being published. The file drawer problem

Bias in favour of established research areas

Time consuming and expensive can take months of years to publish, delaying publication of important findings

234
Q

How does research effect the economy

A

Reduced cost on judicial system and NHS. Potential reduction in crimes and catching more offenders from cog interview

Attachment - flexible working arrangements adopted eg father csn take on most of childcare and work part time if mother earns more - maximise income and contribute more to economy

Mental illness - therapies people stay in work economy

235
Q

What are the sections in order in a scientific report

A

Abstract

Introduction

Method

Results

Discussion

References

236
Q

What is included in an abstract of a scientific report

A

Summary (200 words) of whole report

Include:
Aims and hypotheses
Background research
Method
Results
Conclusions

237
Q

How do you work out percentage increase

A

Difference divided by original times 100

238
Q

How to work out percentage decrease

A

Starting value - ending value divided by starting value times 100

239
Q

What does standard deviation measure

A

Consistency

Psychology (12 decks)

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