Aggression Flashcards
Is the limbic system a neural mechanism of aggression
Yes
Explain the limbic system
Brain structures
Amygdala is responsible for rapidly interpreting sensory information and providing an appropriate emotional response - overactive means more aggression
Hippocampus deals with formation of LTM. If animals attacked - long term memory of encounter will be formed. Next time animal has similar experience will respond with fear or aggression. Abnormalities I’m hippocampus appear to prevent amygdala processing sensory info
Limbic communicates with other areas of brain. Believes pre-frontal cortex had an important role in controlling impulsive behaviour such as urge to behave aggressively
Is serotonin inhibitory or exhibitory
Inhibitory - calming effect
Explain why low levels of serotonin may cause aggression
Serotonin has a calming effect on neurons firing in brain, particularly pre frontal cortex. Pre frontal cortex is responsible for resisting urge to behave aggressively when the limbic system is stimulated. Low levels of serotonin disrupt the calming effect resulting in individuals being more likely to behave aggressively
Explain why high levels of serotonin are linked to aggression
During pre natal development the brain may be flooded with serotonin (the prefrontal cortex)
This makes the brain less sensitive to calming effect of serotonin.
When limbic system is stimulated, individual may be more likely to behave aggressively because pre frontal cortex is not acting as a ‘brake’ as usually would
Evaluate serotonin as a cause of aggression
Supporting evidence - role of low level of serotonin for aggression.
Correlation found lower levels of waste product in cerebrospinal fluid of people with aggressive and impulsive behaviour. Suggests individuals that aggressive more likely to have low serotonin than non aggressive.
Supporting evidence - low serotonin levels associated with impulsive aggression in monkeys and also assault, self injury and violent suicide in humans. High levels alcohol reduce serotonin offering a possible explanation for the well documented link between alcohol and aggression
Beta bias - one researcher gave healthy participants drug dexfenfluramine - reduced serotonin levels. Pp’s complete questionnaire to assess aggression before and after drug - taking drug increased score of aggression in males not females. Females do not react same way to decreased serotonin as men
What are genetic theories of aggression
Chromosomal abnormalities
MAOA gene
Explain chromosomal abnormalities
Early psychologists thought aggression lied in Y chromosomes. Interested that individuals who are aggressive with genotype of XYY. Extra Y chromosome would lead to increase of aggression as higher levels of ‘super males’ as possessed two male Y chromosomes
Gene occurs in 1 in 1000 males
Evaluate chromosomal abnormalities
Supporting evidence - Jacobs et al found 3% men in prison had this pattern suggested link between chromosomal abnormality and aggressive behaviour
Challenging evidence, a researcher compared personality traits of XYY men with XY men and examined levels of aggressiveness. He found increase in height but not in aggression. XYY may only have a slight impact on aggression and more height. Lacks validity (not measure what meant to)
Gender bias = not explain for women
Explain the MAOA gene theory of aggression
MAOA is an enzyme which mops up neurotransmitters such as serotonin after transmission across the synapse.
Production of this enzyme is determined by the MAOA gene.
A variant of this gene is called MAOA-L gene creates low levels of MAOA and a build up of serotonin and this is linked to aggression
MAOA-L gene means low MAOA means higher serotonin.
Studies call this ‘warrior gene’
Evaluate the MAOA gene
Supporting evidence from case studies - Bruner et al assessed 8 male and 3 female from family. Males had been repeatedly involved in impulsively aggressive behaviour such as rape, attempted murder and assault - aggressive. Males had abnormally low levels of MAOA in brains and possessed MAOA-L gene. Study supports role of MAOA-L gene, however case study is not generalisable.
Supporting evidence - using mice and ‘knock out’ technique to knock out MAOA gene completely = very high levels serotonin. Mice hyper aggressive. Confidence in MAOA and aggression. Also problematic - can’t extrapolate to human aggression - more complex
Challenging of MAOA hypothesis. Vassos used meta analysis - found no association for one single gene and aggression. Thousands of genes together contribute to aggression - its polygenic. Doubt simplicity of theory.
Ignores other influences eg environment. Capsi found association between MAOA-al in males who where treated badly as children. Suggests MAOA gene is a contributing factor paired with significant stressor. Suggests role for diathesis stress. Biologically reductionist
What are hormonal mechanisms in aggression
Testosterone
Corrisol
Explain how testosterone affects aggression
High levels testosterone associated with increased physical aggression.
Males have higher testosterone and are found to have more aggression than females.
Makes between 15-25 show highest level of violence as testosterone levels are highest.
Testosterone may alter the way males react to stimulus, as when females where injected with testosterone they showed higher hate rate when reacting to photos of angry faces.
Testosterone also reduces the amount of serotonin that is available for transmission across the synapse of nerves in the brain - low serotonin related to aggression
Evaluate testosterone as a hormonal mechanism to aggression
Supporting evidence - salivary testosterone was measured in violent and non violent criminals. Similar results found in non-prison populations. Other research shows those who behave aggressively when drunk have higher testosterone than those who arent. Suggests positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggression.
Challenging evidence - link is more complex. Research shows females with high occupational status have higher testosterone levels. Related perhaps to the increased assertiveness that comes from high testosterone levels. Another study shows females kinder who have more testosterone. It could be testosterone that promotes status seeking behaviour which aggression may be. Testosterone could be leading to status seeking not aggression.
Practical applications - aggression is anti social behaviour. If linked to high testosterone a biological treatment could be developed to reduce testosterone levels and aggression levels. Positive implications for the economy reduce demand placed on NHS for victims of violence and reduce pressure of judicial system in dealing with fewer arrests from violent people
Explain cortisol as a hormonal mechanism for aggression
Cortisol - hormone produced by adrenal glands in response to stress. Research shows high levels of cortisol associated with lower levels of aggression (negative correlation)
Could be because cortisol increases anxiety and withdrawal - individual less likely to engage
Cortisol may inhibit testosterone levels - lower aggression
Evaluate cortisol as a hormonal mechanism for aggression
Challenging evidence to a negative correlation.
Studies found no significant correlation between cortisol and aggression. One study found higher cortisol in higher aggressive people. The role of cortisol in relation to aggressive behaviour is not clear
Evaluate the limbic system
Supporting evidence for the role of amygdala in aggression. One case study documented adult who suffered brain damage had frequent outbursts of unprovoked violent behaviour. Surgery destroyed part of his amygdala and he had no further violent episodes. In another study a PET scan of murderers abnormalities were found in the limbic system of murderers suggesting this part of the brain could be linked to aggressive behaviour. Although case study unique can’t generalise
Describe the evolutionary explanation of aggression
Focus on adaptive nature. Aggression is seen as an adaptive strategy that solved a number of challenges such as finding a mate.
Two examples - male aggression in response to sexual competition
( male ancestors had to compete with each other for female mates. Males successfully used aggression to eliminate competition, would have been more successful in acquiring mates and therefore reproduced, passing on their genes. This is why males aggressive on males. Research suggests traits present in males today due to competition that took place such as men having 75% more muscle mass than women)
Male aggression in response to sexual jealousy ( infidelity has serious implications for men. If a women had another sexual partner, her partner can not be sure any children are biologically his own. Men risk being ‘cuckolded’ - putting effort into raising a child who does not carry their genes. Researchers have suggested it would be adaptive for males who are jealous to use buss mate retention strategies which includes coming home early, checking who the female is with, suicide threats
Explain an evolutionary explenation for male aggression in response to sexual competition
( male ancestors had to compete with each other for female mates. Males successfully used aggression to eliminate competition, would have been more successful in acquiring mates and therefore reproduced, passing on their genes. This is why males aggressive on males. Research suggests traits present in males today due to competition that took place such as men having 75% more muscle mass than women)
Explain an evolutionary eplenation for male aggression in response to sexual jealousy
infidelity has serious implications for men. If a women had another sexual partner, her partner can not be sure any children are biologically his own. Men risk being ‘cuckolded’ - putting effort into raising a child who does not carry their genes. Researchers have suggested it would be adaptive for males who are jealous to use buss mate retention strategies which includes coming home early, checking who the female is with, suicide threats
Evaluate the evolutionary theory of aggression
Supportive evidence - for sexual jealousy. Shackelford used questionnaires to investigate mate retention strategies. They used 461 men and 560 women. All were in heterosexual relationships. The findings showed positive correlation between men’s use of mate retention strategies and their violence scores. Results from women’s scores agreed with men. Shackelfords result support evolutionary explanation jealousy is associated with use of aggression towards partner. (Problem correlation - no cause and effect. People change answers to be more socially desirable)
Challenging evidence - fail to explain high levels of cruelty that are often found in human conflict yet are not evident among non-human species. Does not explain wide-scale cruelty such as genocide. Do not explain why humans torture opponents when they have already defeated and no longer pose a threat. Other evidence suggests this can be explained by social psychological theories such as a lack of loss of personal identity. Aggression is different in culture, wouldn’t happen if all same species. Hard determinism
Weakness - socially sensitive. Legitimates domestic violence as states it’s in men’s genes to act violent - very controversial. Aggression is socially unacceptable. This explanation says it’s ‘natural’ and we must accept natural masculine behaviour. Ideas are ethically questionable, representing women in subordinate role in society and seriously damaging the campaign for men and women to have equal rights. Theory provides man with ready made excuse - not morals (free will)
Weakness - theory based on male aggression, suffer from gender bias (alpha bias). However men also engage in mate retention strategies and carry out aggressive acts towards partners. A review of 2060 murders in the US found women were twice as likely to murder their partner out of jealousy. Research has neglected to examine the behaviour of women in this area and it’s sole focus on male behaviour means it’s gender bias
What is the supportive evidence for evolutionary theory of aggression
Supportive evidence - for sexual jealousy. Shackelford used questionnaires to investigate mate retention strategies. They used 461 men and 560 women. All were in heterosexual relationships. The findings showed positive correlation between men’s use of mate retention strategies and their violence scores. Results from women’s scores agreed with men. Shackelfords result support evolutionary explanation jealousy is associated with use of aggression towards partner. (Problem correlation - no cause and effect. People change answers to be more socially desirable)
What are ethologists
They study animals in their natural environment
Describe the ethnological explanation of aggression
Ethologists believe it’s appropriate to generalise findings to humans. Aggression is seen in all animal species and is believed to be innate behaviour that provides an adaptive function.
Lorenz proposed aggression in animals is ritualistic, he argued that behaviour is more adaptive than direct aggression as it ensures organism is not harmed. Aggression is not about death as death could cause problems with reproducing.
Innate releasing mechanisms and fixed action patterns
What are innate releasing mechanisms and fixed action patterns
A built in neural structure which when exposed to a sign stimulus will cause the release of an automatic behavioural response. (Innate releasing mechanism)
Result of this a fixed action pattern occurs which is inevitable, some possible features are;
• stereotyped behaviour always occurs in same way
• universal behaviour amung species
• behaviour is innate - not affected by learning
• once behaviour is triggered will follow inevitable path and cannot be altered
• each fixed action pattern has a particular sign, environmental trigger
What are features of fixed action patterns
• stereotyped behaviour always occurs in same way
• universal behaviour amung species
• behaviour is innate - not affected by learning
• once behaviour is triggered will follow inevitable path and cannot be altered
• each fixed action pattern has a particular sign stimulus, environmental trigger
What is an example of ethological and fixed action patterns
Male sticklebacks are highly territorial during the mating season when they develop a red spot on their underbelly .
If another male enters their territory displaying a red spot ( sign stimulus) an innate releasing mechanism is activated. This leads to a fixed action pattern of stereotyped aggressive behaviour
Evaluate the ethological approach
Supporting evidence - sticklebacks went red during mating season. The stickleback would head but anything red including a rock. All male stickleback showed aggressive behaviour towards the rock. This shows behaviour is universal and strongly supports the innate nature of this behaviour.
It is likely human aggression is more complex and innate factors are only a minor influence of aggression. Ethological approach does not tell us much about human aggression, if evolutionary we would all act the same but there is cultural differences. South American males more aggressive than north males, human aggression cannot be solely influenced on innate factors then. Ethologists can’t explain this.
Weakness - ignores influence of nurture. Nurture and environment play more influential role than claimed by Lorenz. It’s been suggested environmental factors such as learning interact with innate factors in complex ways and both nature and nurture must be considered when explaining aggression. More appropriate to use term ‘modal action patterns’ as behaviour modified by experience (some dogs chase cats some don’t) The differences in behaviour may be down to training or may be down to species differentiation as a result of selective breeding. Environment must play a factor
describe social learning theory applied to human aggression
Bandura proposed all behaviour is learnt directly and indirectly.
Directly (things happening to us) - operant conditioning
Indirect learning (watch it happen to other people).
Children observe a role model (someone similar or higher status) that they identify behave in a certain way and watch them get rewarded for it vicarious reinforcement. If children have observed positive reinforcement they may be more likely to imitate that aggressive behaviour. This may lead to the child gaining direct reinforcement if the child receives some reward themselves, the behaviour is likely to continue and be strengthened.
Whether this behaviour is copied is due to meditational processes. Cognitive factors that come between observing and copying.
Attention - to aggressive behaviour
Retention - remember the behaviour
Motivation - must want to behave like that for a reward
Motor reproduction - must physically be able to reproduce aggressive behaviour
Give an example of learning aggression through social learning theory.
Child observes superhero win a fight
Child see’s superhero as a role model as they have a higher social status than him.
Child see’s superhero get rewarded with status and power (vicarious reinforcement)
Child imitates behaviour and practices fighting.
If child actually fights someone and wins it, they have been directly reinforced and the behaviour is strengthened.
Cognitive processes:
Child would pay attention to tv and watch closely
Child would have to remember the behaviour they have seen and form a mental representation of how to reproduce the behaviour
The child must believe they are able to reproduce the aggressive behaviour, even if they physically cannot
Child must be motivated to try and copy behaviour for the reward
What is the frustration aggression hypothesis
Dollard suggested all aggression was caused by frustration and frustration always lead to aggression.
Based on psychodynamic concept of catharsis (emotional release)
Aggression is a drive like hunger. If people are prevented from getting what they want the experience frustration which triggers the aggressive drive which leads to aggression.
Give an example of the frustration aggression hypothesis
Someone waiting in a busy car park eventually gets a space and prepares to reverse into it, but someone else gets it first. The driver becomes frustrated which triggers the aggressive drive resulting in verbal aggression as the driver shouts at the other driver.
Why do some people not display aggression in the frustration aggression hypothesis
It may not be practically possible - source of frustration may be weather
We risk punishment by responding aggressively - shouting at a police officer, will make punishment worse
Source is unavailable - e.g sibling taking your charger and not being there
These situations aggression drive still triggered but aggression is displaced to an alternative source
Evaluate social learning theory applied to human aggression
Supportive evidence - Bandura in bobo doll experiment. One group of children watched an adult punching and kicking an inflatable bobo doll and get rewarded, another group watched adult get punished. Children individually went into room with bobo doll, children who had observed aggressive behaviour whwre more likely to imitate behaviour.
What is frustration
Being stopped from achieving a goal
Evaluate frustration - aggression hypothesis
Does not account for biological factors such as the MAOA-L gene (explain)
Supportive evidence - four groups of males asked to complete a jigsaw. Participants in three groups had their levels of frustration manipulated. After this PP’S asked to give electric shocks to the confederate. The strongest shocks were given by the group that was insulted, then distracted, then doing an impossible puzzle, then the possible condition. Shows frustration can lead to aggressive behaviour as predicted by the explanation.
Challenging evidence. One study participants asked to vent their frustration by punching a punching bag. Participants became more aggressive rather than less. Another group who did nothing to vent their frustration became less aggressive. This is the opposite of what would be predicted by the frustration aggression hypothesis and therefore questions the validity of this explenation.
Does not account for individual differences. Frustration does not always lead to aggression. Some people may choose to withdraw from a frustrating situation rather than respond with aggressive behaviour and other people may respond to frustration by crying rather than become aggressive. Suggests individual differences play a role in how people respond to frustration which is not accounted for by the frustration aggression hypothesis
What is a dispositions explanation of institutional aggression
Focus on the characteristics of prisoners, arguing they are violent individuals who bring aggression into prison with them.
The importation model argues it is the disposition of the individual.
Individuals not blank slates when they enter prison. They are likely to have alcohol/drug dependency and poverty not biological factors.
Researcher argued high levels of aggression is from prisoners subculture which includes criminal beliefs, values, norms.
Prisoners willingness to use aggression to settle disputes reflects their life prior to imprisonment. Inmates also use aggression to establish status.
Evaluate dispositional explanation of institutional aggression
Supportive evidence - research shows anger, anti-social personality and impulsivity were stronger predictors of aggression in prison than ethnicity or type of offence. Anger was the best predictor of all three. This came from a correlation between dispositions characteristics and aggressive prisoners
Weakness - challenging evidence. Researcher claims importation model ignored role played by prison officers. Poorly managed prisons are more likely to experience most serious form of inmate violence. Factors are more influential in explaining why there is high levels of aggression in prisons than inmate characteristics.
Weakness - ignores biological factors. Importation model argues prisoners aggressive because of their values and beliefs. Biological approach offers alternate suggestion that genetics and hormones determine levels of aggression. Individuals who carry out criminal anti social behaviour might be more aggressive than people who are not because of their biology rather than just experience
Explain situational explanations of institutional aggression in prisons
Suggest prison is an environment that creates aggressive behaviour because of its systems and regimes. Aggression is caused by the prison situation.
The deprivation model argues it is the harsh prison conditions that lead to stress for inmates who cope by behaving aggressively.
Model proposes the experience of being deprived of things such as liberty and relationship is what brings about aggression.
May be a lack of willingness by a prisoner to obey rules enforced by prison staff which could lead to aggression against staff or inmates.
The potentially cramped conditions, threatening environment and lack of comfort can also lead to aggression.
Deprivation creates frustration
What is a situational model
Deprivation model
What is a dispositional explenation model
Importation model
Evaluate the situational explanation of institutional aggression
Supportive evidence - Maslows hierarchy of needs supports situational factors in prisons could lead to aggression. In prison it is difficult to meet prisoners physiological needs, as well as safety needs. Self actualisation is therefore not possible which could trigger anti social behaviour. Supports deprivation model that if is nature of prison that brings about aggression
Challenging evidence - levels of deprivation remain constant and do not vary. Levels of aggression vary considerably with periods of relative calm being punctured by violent outbreaks. Goes against the ideas of the deprivation model which could predict consistent levels of aggression in response to the constant deprivation.
Practical applications - and implications for economy. Situational proposes prison regimes that deprive prisoners create environments in which aggression is likely to break out. Could be reduced by adopting procedures that give prisoners some sense of control. Prisoners might be allowed some choice over time out of cell and may be able to earn money to spend on small luxuries like chocolate. Ifea prison life should be unpleasant and allow prisoners greater opportunities was very unpopular so beneficial changes not adopted
What does deindividuation mean
A psychological state that occurs when people are in groups and loose self identity
What triggers deindividuation
Being in a large crowd
Wearing a uniform
Effects of alcohol or drugs
How do deindividuated and individuated behaviours differ
Individuated - rational and conforms to social norms
Deindividuated - primitive urges, aggression and ignores social norms
Why does deindividuation cause aggression
As a person looses their sense of individuality they experience reduced self control which leads to impulsive behaviour and aggression
Describe de-individuation
A psychological state that occurs when we are in a group and loose self identity.
Triggered by being in a large group, wearing a uniform, the effects of drugs and alcohol.
Individuated behaviour is rational and conforms to social norms relating to acceptable behaviour.
De-individuated behaviour based on primitive urges such as aggression and reject social norms.
If individual feels anonymous ‘wearing a hood’ or ‘being out at night’ and ‘uniform’ leads to individual loosing their identity, they experience reduced self control and reject social norms.
Once entered de-individuated state and person no longer has concern for what others think about their behaviour or how they may be judged
Evaluate de-individuation
Supportive evidence - for idea anonymity, through wearing uniform brings aggression. Zimbardo found participants dressed in long coats with hoods, in cubicles by themselves gave longer more painful shocks to confederates than participants wearing name badges. However small sample was used that was gynocentric and tells us nothing about males. Can not draw firm conclusions
Challenging evidence - another study participants dressed in masks and robes or in a nurses uniform. Participants dressed as nurses have less electric shocks than masked participants. Challenges theory as both groups were similarly de-individuated by wearing a uniform so should have been similarly aggressive. It may matter what uniform you are wearing which zimbardo did not account for. Weakness as there are flaws in zimbardos research which make us question how accurate it is
Weakness - alternative explenation. When an individuals de-individuates they may strongly adopt the social norms of the situation. e.g norm of a nurse is to be caring not aggressive. De-individuation theory suggests a whole rejection of social norms when individual identity is lost but this evidence challenges this idea. The behaviour of people in peaceful or mourning crowds suggests de-individuation does not necessarily lead to aggression but rather an adoption of the social norms of the setting
Theory is determinist - ignored free will, does not allow for conscious desicions
Explain the findings of one study into media aggression they did not look at the effect of computer games
One study exposed 5-6 year old Finnish children to either violent or non violent films
Those who watched more violent films were rated higher on physical aggression
What is two lab experiment regarding media influences on aggression
Silver and Williamson compared effect of playing a violent game with watching a violent cartoon. Children who played game exhibited more verbal and physical aggression, suggesting computer games had more of an effect on aggression than simply watching violent media
Matthews et al found adolescents who were assigned to play violent video games had reduced activity in pre frontal lobes (inhibiting impulsive behaviour) and increased activity in the amygdala (producing emotions) compared to those who played non aggressive video games
Explain a correlation study linked to media and aggression
Gentile and Anderson collected data from over 600 adolescents and found a positive correlation between time spent playing violent computer games, arguments with teachers and physical fights
Explain one longitudinal study - media and aggression
Anderson surveyed 430 children 7-9 years old at two points during academic year. Children with high exposure to violent games became more verbally and physically aggressive. Ratings of aggression were provided by teachers, peers and children themselves
Explain one meta analysis study - media aggression
Anderson conducted meta analysis of 136 studies which used different research methods. They found playing violent computer games was liked to increase in aggressive behaviours thoughts and feelings
Found in both males and females
Evaluate research into media affects on aggression
Researchers using lab experiments measure aggression in artficial and unrealistic manner. For example aggression is operationalised as participants self rated feelings of hostility. Lab experiments may not offer a valid demonstration of real effects of playing violent computer games
Lab experiments participants are given permission to be aggressive. They have no fear or retaliation for behaviour which is not the same in everyday life. Participants may be showing higher levels of aggression in lab experiment compared to real world, where negative consequences exist for aggressive behaviour. Low ecological validity
Weakness of correlation evidence can not show playing violent video games is the cause of aggression. May be a third factor that links two variables such as aggressive family or aggressive personality. Evidence from correlation does not help us fully understand link between violent computer games and aggression
Longitudinal studies study impact over time. More realistic way to investigate topic compared to short term assessments. However confounding variables can be problematic over time and it can be difficult to conclude whether any increase in aggressive behaviour is due to game playing or cofounding variable such as presence of role models or other media
Androcentric- mostly male research
Why might exposure to media violence lead to aggression
Desensitisation
Dishinibition
Cognitive imprinting
Explain desensitisation
Violent and anti social behaviour usually produces unpleasant anxious reactions.
Desensitisation argues with continuous exposure to stimulus our responses to stimulus are decreased, if aggression is presented to us daily there is reduction in our response to aggression
Once we are desensitised we have reduced physiological arousal (heart rate) when presented with media violence, these individuals less likely to notice real life violence and show less sympathy for victims of violence. If violence does not make individual feel anxious they may regard it as normal and acceptable and become aggressive themselves
Today, violence and aggression often in news reports and featured in many computer games. Because of computer games individuals may not respond to real aggression with any physiological arousal. More likely to accept violence and behave violently when given the opportunity
What is meant by cognitive
Internal mental processes
Explain the role of cognitive priming - media influence on aggression
Cognitive priming - being exposed to media violence generates a ‘script’ of how to deal with conflicts in everyday life. Scripts are stored in memory and are retrieved and activated in real life
Frequent exposure to media violence leads to aggressive scripts bring more readily available making it more likely an individual will behave aggressively in response to an everyday situation.
Cognitive priming is mostly automatic as the script is triggered without us necessarily being aware of the process. But we do have some control over response - cues only acts as triggers if contexts are very similar.
Fortunately not very often gamers find themselves in real life situations which mirror the environment
Explain the role of disinhibition - media aggression
Strongly links to social learning theory.
We learn to inhibit/avoid the use of aggression to solve conflicts in everyday life. Most people share the view aggressive behaviour is anti social and undesirable
Restraint against behaving aggressively is reduced when exposed to violent media as there is no threat of punishment for behaving aggressively and so aggression is more likely to occur. Anonymity also reduces a persons responsibility for their behaviour similar to being de-individuated
Argued violent games have an immediate affect by inciting aggression in someone who is usually quite passive
Disinhibition can have a long term effect - aggressive behaviour in media is often sanctioned and justified and rewarded. This can create new social norms about such behaviour making the viewer or game player feel less inhibited about behaving aggressively in every day life
