Approaches Flashcards
Who turned psychology into a science
Wundt
What is introspection
The process by which a person gains knowledge about their inner mind through examining their conscious thoughts and sensations
Participants asked to self report
How did Wundt contribute towards the emergence of psychology as a science
His work established psychology as an independent branch of science
He inspired new psychological approaches that enables the mind and behaviour to be studied scientifically
Useful for collection data on human experiences
How does the behaviourist approach explain behaviour
We are born a blank slate and everything is learnt through classical and operant conditioning
What is classical conditioning
Learning through association
An unconditioned stimulus gives an unconditioned response
This paired with a neutral stimulus
Conditioned stimulus gives conditioned response
Explain research into classical conditioning
Pavlovs dog
Dog has reflex to salivate when they see food
Pavlov rang a bell each time dog gets food repeatedly
Dog eventually salivated just when the bell rang and no food was present
Dog had associated sound of bell with food and responded in same way to bell as they do to food
What is operant conditioning
Learning through consequences of our behaviour
Positive reinforcement - if we are rewarded we are more likely to continue to behave in thag way
Negative reinforcement - if we do something to avoid something unpleasant to us we are more likely to keep behaving that way
Explain research into operant conditioning
Skinners rat
Rat in a box with a lever, would press lever by chance and get a food pellet. This positive reinforcement made ray learn to keep pressing lever
Variation - light would signal and followed by electric shock, rat learnt pressing lever would stop electric shock this is negative reinforcement
Evaluate the behaviourist approach explenation of behaviour
Supportive evidence - Skinner and Pavlov research showed positive and negative reinforcement can bring about learning of behaviour.
Weakness - assumes people respond in a simplistic manner based solely upon the experiences they had. It assumes humans have little or no conscious awareness of insight into their behaviour. Findings may be more applicable to animal behaviour instead of humans
Behaviourist approach considers humans to have no free will, whereas many psychologists think humans do have the capacity to make conscious desicions so think behaviourist approach is not a good way of explaining behaviour
Practical applications - classical and operant conditioning led to an explenation for phobias which lead to therapy’s such as systematic desensitisation where someone with a phobia learns to associate the object they fear with relaxation and calmness
What comes under social learning theory
Vicarious reinforcement
Mediational processes
Whether behaviour is imitated
How did Bandura explain learning
Individuals can learn indirectly by observing behaviour - social learning theory
Individuals observe with someone they identify with (someone we associate ourselves with or our role models)
If this person gets rewarded for their behaviour the observer experiences vicarious reinforcement through watching the direct enforcement happen to the role model
The individual imitates the observer which is called modelling and experiences direct enforcement which means a behaviour is more likely to continue
What is vicarious reinforcement
Watching a role model we identify with get rewarded for certain behaviour
What are the mediastinal processes
Come between stimulus and response
Determines whether a person will imitate the behaviour or not
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
What was Bandura research into learning theory
Bandura bobo doll
One group of children observed adults punch and hit a bobo doll
Another group observed the adults play in a non aggressive manner with the bobo doll
Children who had observed aggressive behaviour were more likely to be aggressive
CTITICISED BECAUSE NO REWARD
Children watched video of adults be aggressive to bobo doll and get rewarded, another watched an adult get punished for aggressive behaviour, a control group saw no praise or punishment
Group who watched most aggressive role model get praised where more likely to be aggressive
Evaluate Bandura RESEARCH
Strength - used lab experiments, standardised procedures and high control
Criticism - conclusions lack accuracy, children put in strange situation exposed to unusual behaviour. Bobo dolls are designed to be hit and knocked over so children may have assumed that’s what they were meant to do. Children’s behaviour may be due to demand characteristics
Ethical issues - the aggressive behaviour may have stayed with them for some time after the study. Children could not consent so their parents did but children could not withdraw and were not debriefed after. If could be argued benefits of society outweighed risk of children involved as this study important contribute to debate of censorship in tv films and video games
Evaluate social learning theory
S - fuller explanation of behaviour than classical & operant conditioning as encompasses role of thinking process. Stronger explenation, may argue it is more accurate
C - ignores biological factors. In bobo doll studies boys were more aggressive than girls regardless of situation they was in. Suggests behaviour such as aggression is influenced by biological factors, which theory does not acknowledge. SLT neglects important factors, weakens explenation
S - leas deterministic as role of meditational processes means individuals have some conscious input. Psychologists prefer explanations where humans actively create desicions making tbis a better explenation
P - practical application for reducing behaviour such as aggression by not reinforcing it in the media or censoring films and games with age restrictions, or showing negative consequences of violence rather than reward to help reduce violent crimes
Basic assumptions of cognitive approach
Way we think influences our behaviour
We are like information processors similar to computers
Describe cognitive approach and internal mental processes
Cognitive approach focuses on mental processes such as perception thinkinf and memory through inferences
Many times we do not know ourselves what thought processes we have so could not use introspection
describe the role of the schema - cognitive
Schema is a set of beliefs, knowledge and expectations developed from our experiences which influences our mental processes
Schemas help us deal with lots of incoming information quickly and efficiently without having to think about it all separately
Schemas can be used to understand mental disorders such as depression - depressed people may have negative schemas
Schemas can be used to explain memory - eyewitness to a violent crime might recall perpetrator as male even if it’s female because of schema expectations
Fill in gaps in memory of what we would expect to happen
What is a theoretical model
Presentation of how cognitive approach believes mental processes operate.
Often presented in diagrams showing how components fit together
e.g multi-store model of memory
Scientific approach as each part of model can be tested.
Model had scientific credibility as providing explanation as model is falsifiable - central feature of science
What are computer models - cognitive
Analogy of the mind as a computer as assumes mind has same functions as a computer
Information processor
Input processing output
Computer models is consistent adopting a scientific approach. Use lab experiments to present different inputs ‘stimuli’ and record the output ‘response
How do cognitive psychologists use inferences
Theoretical models and computer models.
Go beyond immediate evidence to draw conclusions.
Experiments test ideas in models to produce behaviour which is used to infer mental processes
Cognitive psychologists make inferences of cognitive functioning as mental processes cannot be directly observed
4 evaluation points cognitive approach
Supportive evidence for notion of mental illness. Grazioli and Terry 65 preggers ladies
Weakness - rely too much on inferences. Science expects direct evidence no interpretation needed. Not empirical objective evidence
Weakness - too mechanistic. Too much like computers doesn’t account emotions + motivation (e.g emotion witnessing a crime)
Strength - CBT & Cognituve interview prac app
Describe cognitive neuroscience
Studies the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
Occurred due to advances in brain scanning techniques such as fMRI or PET scans which allows scientists to study neurobiological basis of mental processes like memory
Gives empirical, objective evidence using sophisticated scanning techniques established cognitive neuroscience as a scientific way of investigating mental processes
Practical applications of cognitive neuroscience
1860’s Paul crocs identified area of brain in frontal lobe involved in production of speech (Brocas area)
Wee nicks found similar area involved in speech comprehension (Wernickes area)
3 evaluation points cognitive neuroscience
Supportive evidence internal mental processes underpinned by biological processes. Raine 41 murderers and 41 no violence used PET scans. Murderers had lower levels activity in pre frontal cortex (linked to self control and emotional reactions). Scan people’s brains from childhood to prevent future crimes (socially sensitive). HM hippocampus removed inability to form long term memory’s
Practical applications. Development of brain scans enabled psychologists to pinpoint areas of brain linked to memory eg semantic memory’s linked to frontal and parietal lobes. Also medical professionals deal with stroke victims and long term rehabilitation. Also identify areas of brain linked to mental illness eg caudate nucleus associated with worry circuit
Increased value of cognitive approach by incorporating biological factors with cognitive processes - more complete explanation of mind. Strengthened scientific nature of cognitive approach - objective brain scanning techniques to investigate mental processes adding to its value
What are the basic assumptions of the biological approach
Behaviour explained in terms of physical factors and biological makeup including
Genes
Evolution
The brain
Neurochemicals
Hormones
Highly scientific
Study of animals
How do genetics influence our behaviour - biological
We inherit genes from parents.
Genes create psychological characteristics such as aggression, mental illness as well as physical characteristics
Many geneticists attempt to find candidate genes for disorders.
Twin studies show monozygotic twins often have same psychological characteristics compared to dizygotic, measured using concordance -> expressed as percentage
Geneotype -> genetic makeup
Phenotype -> how genes are expressed in physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics. Influenced by genes and environment
Example of geneotype and phenotype
Individual may inherit gene linked to becoming a psychopath. Whether this gene actually influences them to become a psychopath depends on what life experience they have
Pheneotype of being a psychopath occurs as a result of genes and experiences as human behaviour is product of nature and nurture
3 evaluation points genes in behaviour
Supportive evidence - research into OCD showed MZ twins concordance of 68% compared to DZ 31%. Genes have strong influence as difference between two types of twins is how genetically similar they are. OCD influenced by genes
Supportive evidence - research identify two candidate genes for OCD (COMT - controls enzyme which regulated dopamine, low COMT = more dopamine = OCD) and (SERT regulates protein SERT removes serotonin from synapses) found in families with OCD
weakness - concordance rate twins not 100% genes play a role but must be something else influencing. Also having particular gene does not mean condition will 100% develop. Characteristics appear as a result of genetic factors and experiences
How does evolution influence our behaviour - biological
Modern human behaviour result of natural selection. Evolution explains psychological attributes in same way Darwin explained evolution of physical features. Based on effects of genes on behaviour.
Gene mutation creates new variation of gene that increases survival rate - adaptive behaviour.
Person with that gene survives and is able to reproduce and offspring would inherit that gene - gene becomes widespread and form part of geneotype
Gene has ‘naturally’ selected
Evaluate role of evolution on behaviour
Supporting research - early humans mutated gene that liked taste of sweet food and didn’t like task of bitter food (sweet food rarely poisonous but bitter food is). Someone who didn’t eat bitter food would survive better and pass gene on. Modern humans have geneotype to like sweet food
Weakness - lacks test ability. Impossible to test selective pressures on species. Does not meet criteria for science and considered pseudoscientific
Describe biological structures influence behaviour
Specific regions of brain associated with specific processes such as auditory cortex in temporal lobes associated with hearing
Outer layer cerebral cortex responsible for thoughts
Language centre left hemisphere most people - Broca’s area in frontal lobe responsible for speech production. People who damage Broca’s area slow laborious speech lacking fluency
Abnormally behaviour may occur if brain is damaged e.g schizophrenics have enlarged ventricles
Deceive how neurochemistry influences our behaviour
Chemicals in body such as neurotransmitters (chemical which allows message to be transmitted across synaptic gap)
Neurotransmitters linked to mental illness. Mann found depression linked to low serotonin
OCD caused by disruption of serotonin levels, which knock of effect of other neurotransmitters such as GABA and dopamine. Individuals take anti depressants to increase serotonin
Weakness of biological structure and neurochemisty explaining behaviour
Difficult to determine cause and effect.
Not sure if chemical structural abnormalities are cause of condition or result of condition
Explenation does not fully explain what it set out too
4 overall evaluation points biological approach
Scientific - relies carefully on controlled experimental techniques - highly precise objective scanning techniques - empirical evidence of biological processes. Contributed emergence of psychology as a science
Heavily nature, little regard to nurture and effects of experiences. Unbalanced explenation. Critics feel behaviour is always combination of nature and nurture
Determinist - humans little influence or control on behaviour as internal factors make us behave as we do. Does not accept humans make concious desicions and act on free will. Someone could claim not responsible for anti social behaviour such as aggression because there gene makes them behave like it.
Practical applications. Research of neurotransmitters lead to drug development to correct imbalances in mental illness. SSRI’s treat OCD by leaving more serotonin in synaptic gap.
Basic assumptions of psychodynamic approach
Unconscious processes influence behaviour
Childhood experiences influence behaviour
Eros - life instinct
Thanatos - death instinct
Libido active from birth
Personality - ID ego superego
Defence mechanisms
Describe and evaluate the role of the unconscious
Largest part of the mind.
Protects conscious from anxiety, fear, trauma and conflict. defence mechanisms attempt to ensure disturbing emotions and traumatic memories are kept hidden deep in the unconscious and is inaccessible to the conscious.
Unconscious is driving force behind our behaviour and personality. e.g repressed traumatic memories can lead to anxiety.
Fixation can influence adults personality
Strength of psychodynamic role of unconscious
Lead to therapy - psychoanalysis
Uncover content of unconscious to help people deal with unresolved problems, they believe to be cause of disorders such as depression and anxiety
Biskup reported study of 36 patients demonstrating at end of psychoanalysis 77% showed significant improvement
Who identified personality structure
Freud
Describe personality structure
ID - primitive, anamilistic side of mind operates on pleasure principle. Demands needs to be met immediately, made up of basic biological drives sex, aggression, hunger. Concerned with own desires and resided within unconscious mind
Superego - appears end of phallic stage, forms moral standards of same sex parent. Concerned with right and wrong. Operates on morality principle and represents what we would be like if we were perfect. Drives us to do right and punished us with guilt if we don’t meet high standards. Unconscious
Ego - reality principle. Mediates ID and allows it to meet its needs in socially acceptable way. Balances conflict between demands of ID and moral standards of superego. Resided within the concious
Weakness of personality structure
Hard to falsify.
Popper said theory only scientific if it’s falsifiable and can be proven wrong.
Personality structure is a concept not a physical structure so brain scans can not falsify it.
Freida claims are not scientific
What are the defence mechanisms
Repression
Denial
Displacement
Describe defence mechanisms
Used by the ego - involve altering reality in some way to allow the concious mind to cope. Freud argued normal to use some times - excessive use is mental illness
Repression = hide distressing unacceptable memories from concious mind. Memories come from bad experiences or strong impulses. Buried in unconscious, however can still influence behaviour and may appear in dreams
Denial = block reality of situation that is hard to face. Refuse to acknowledge situation so does not experience anxiety
Displacement = redirect an impulse (usually aggression) to substitute target. Person or object that is more acceptable and more helpless. Redirection of energy results in reduced anxiety
What are the psychosexual stages and ages
Oral 0-2
Anal 2-3
Phallic 3-6
Latency 6-12
Genital 12+
Explain the psychosexual stages
Oral - pleasure of mouth, sucking and chewing. Child needs to move away from breast feeding
Anal - pleasure from retaining and expelling faeces. Child must master toilet training
Phallic - pleasure in genitals. Child must resolve Oedipus or electra complex through identification with same sex parent
Latency - libido is less active. Earlier conflicts repressed. Child must master social skills
Genital - sexual energy permanently located in genitals and sexual desire is concious. Child must form adult sexual relationships
What are the consequences from not moving forward in psychosexual stages
Oral - critical and sarcastic. Thumb sucking, smoking, pen chewing
Anal - obsessive, perfectionist, punctual, disorganised, messy, rebellious
Phallic - vain and reckless, homosexuality
Latency - none
Genital - difficulty forming heterosexual relationships, fear of intimacy
Strength of psychosexual stage
Evidence for Oedipus complex - little hans
5 year old boy who developed fear of horses after seeing one collapse
Freud said phobia was a displacement of fear of his dad which he repressed
Horse was symbolic representation of actual fear of his dad - fear of castration Oedipus coplex
Evaluate psychodynamic approach
Supportive evidence - Williams supports repression and Freud provided evidence to support concept of Oedipus complex - little hans
Criticised for case study evidence - rely heavily on subjective interpretation rather than objective info. Cannot be regarded as scientific, not based on representative samples. Questions accuracy and usefulness of psychodynamic approach
Hard to falsify - popper claimed theory is ‘good science’ if it can be proved wrong, falsifiability. ID, ego, superego are concepts not structured within brain so can’t be studied scientifically. Cannot be regarded as scientific, loose confidence in ability to explain behaviour
Practical applications. Therapy psychoanalysis, uncovers content of unconscious mind & help people deal with unresolved problems which are cause of disorders such as depression and anxiety
What are the basic assumptions of humanistic psychology
Everyone is unique - psychology should be subjective and use person centred approach
We should study the person whole
People have free will, can make conscious decisions
People strive to achieve self actualisation
People cannot be studied scientifically
What order is Maslow hierarchy of needs
Physiological, safety, love & belonging, esteem, self actualisation
Explain maslows hierachy of needs
Each individual motivated to reach full potential and achieve self actualisation.
Self actualisation is extreme feeling of satisfaction and well being which may be described as a peak moment or sense of total completeness. It is unique to each individual
Maslow proposed it could be achieved in series of stages based on certain needs fulfilled. Personal growth is central to this, we should be changing and developing to have full potential realised.
Lower needs of hierachy have to be met to move to next level.
Drive to reach full potential implies we are continually striving to have our needs met on route to becoming self actualised.
Not a permanent state and people might move in and out of it
What is self actualisation
Self actualisation is extreme feeling of satisfaction and well being which may be described as a peak moment or sense of total completeness. It is unique to each individual.
It is not a permanent state, may move in and out of it
Describe the focus on the self
How we regard ourselves. Develops through life in response to how others behave towards us, initially our parents, then friends and partners
Self concept - how we see ourselves, affected by self esteem. Low self esteem means poor self concept. We feel bad about ourselves and believe we are not capable of much. It is not accurate and may be distorted or faulty
Ideal self - what we wish we were like. Self we are working towards and trying to be and represents the best version of ourselves in our own eyes. Who we wish we was. Closer our self concept to our ideal self, higher feelings of self worth
Explain congruence
When the self concept and ideal self are the same or very similar. Closer two versions are to each other greater individual feels self worth. Important for individual to experience personal growth.
A big difference between self concept and ideal self (incongreunce) results in negative feelings of self worth
Explain the role of conditions of worth
Conditions an individual thinks they have to meet in order to be loved and valued
Carl Rogers believed many problems of low self worth arise from others giving conditional love where an individual feels loved for exactly how they are with no conditions
Evaluate humanistic approach
Supportive evidence - for notion condition of worth having negative impact on personal growth. Study found teenagers who feel they have to meet conditions for approval from parents often end up not liking themselves.
Culturally biased. Self actualisation and congruence imply aspects such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth. Represent individualistic societies such as Europe and USA. These characteristics not important in collectivist societies like chins where self actualisation would be achieved by helping the wider community
Practical applications, client centred therapy where therapist gives client acceptance genuiness and empathy
Describe client centred therapy
Relationship between client and therapist central. Therapist responds with total acceptance, genuiness and empathy
Therapist offers unconditional positive regard to reduce conditions of worth by having interactions with someone who values and accepts them regardless of what they say or how they feel. Helps individual be more accepting of themselves and have more positive feelings of self worth
Evaluate client centred therapy
Effective therapy that focuses on client and need to consider subjective experiences of individual is emphasised which differs to other therapies. Allows focus on problems in clients life rather than dwelling on past. Widely adopted in clinical, industrial and educational settings
Difficult to scientifically test effectiveness of humanistic counselling as not possible to establish cause and effect between treatment and outcome as client may have recovered without therapy. Many humanistic ideas are abstract and difficult to operationalised making it problematic as no scientific evidence. Although practitioners are unconcerned
