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Cognition And Developmeng Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a schema

A

A mental package of information which helps us make sense of the world

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2
Q

What is equilibration

A

When we can comprehend everything around us in a preferred mental state

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3
Q

What is assimilation

A

When children deal with new situations by using existing schemas to understand new experiences

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4
Q

What is accommodation

A

When children create entirely new schemas or make huge changes to existing ones

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5
Q

What is disequilibrium

A

A state of confusion where new information does not fit pre existing knowledge

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6
Q

What motivates us to adapt our schemas

A

When we reach a state of disequilibrium where we feel confused as new info does not fit into our pre existing knowledge

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7
Q

What is the basic premise of piaget’s theory of adaption

A

When a child changes it’s internal cognition when faced with the external world through assimilation and accommodation

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8
Q

What is an example of assimilation

A

Seeing a new breed of dog but still knowing it’s a dog

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9
Q

What is one example of accommodation

A

A child seeing a plane and not being able to use the schema of a bird

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10
Q

What is a strength of Paige’s theory of adaption

A

Important practical applications in education

Discovery learning been around since 1960

Counting with toys

Used everyday for success

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11
Q

What is a weakness of piagets theory of adaption

A

It ignores the influence of other people in development

Based off individual learning

Ignores ideas from vygotsky

Ignores importance of social interaction

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12
Q

What is thinking like in the sensori motor stage

A

Main focus is senses and moving to allow us to develop. Small amount of schemas and no awareness of past or future. If the child can not see something they can not think about it.

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13
Q

What is object permanence

A

The understanding that an object continues to exist even when you can’t see it, this develops around 8 months

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14
Q

How old is a child in the sensori motor stage

A

0-2

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15
Q

What is Piaget’s 3 blanket study

A

Children played with a toy, then Piaget hid it under one of 3 blankets to see if the children searched for it or not.

If they did they had object permanence

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16
Q

One problem with piagets blanket study (not opposing evidence)

A

The child may have been bored of the top so just not searched for it

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17
Q

What is the opposing evidence to piagets 3 blanket study

A

Bower and Wishart

1-4 months old played with toys, lights were turned off and infrared cameras recorded children looking for toy for up to 90 seconds meaning they understood the toy was there

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18
Q

What did Piaget underestimate in the sensori motor stage

A

The age object permanence develops meaning his sensori motor stage may be wrong

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19
Q

What is thinking like in the pre-operational stage

A

Lack of knowledge

Understand they are alive but think all objects are too

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20
Q

What age are children in the pre operational stage

A

2-7

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21
Q

What are the two periods called in the pre operational stage

A

Pre conceptual period

Initiative period

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22
Q

What are the children like in the pre conceptual period of the pre operational period

A

Still egocentric, believes objects have feelings and do not understand subgroups

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23
Q

What are children like in the initiative period of the pre operational stage

A

They have the ability to decenter but thinking is confined to what things look like (4-7)

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24
Q

What does egocentrism mean

A

Being unable to see things from another point of view

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25
Q

What age does Piaget suggest egocentrism declines

A

Around 7

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26
Q

What is piagets 3 mountain study

A

Pre operational stage

Three, 3D mountains which are slightly different

Child given 10 photos of mountains and asked what doll can see

Allowed to walk around

4 year olds = always wrong (egocentric)

6 year olds = sometimes right sometimes wrong

7/8 year olds = always right

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27
Q

What is one problem with piagets 3 mountain study in the pre operational stage

A

Criticised for being methodological as children where unfamiliar with subject matter ( mountains )

Children wonder why adult wants to know what doll can see

Evidence may be flawed

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28
Q

What does conservation mean ( pre operational stage)

A

Conservation is understanding that redistributing material doesn’t affect its quality ( mass and volume )

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29
Q

What did Piaget do in his conservation study pre operational stage

A

Children given two cups of water

Watched as one was poured into longer thinner tube

Asked what has more water in it

Children under 7 said long thin glass
Children over 7 said same amount

Gives us confidence children at end of pre operational stage can conserve

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30
Q

Who did the study of the naughty teddy in the pre operational stage

A

MacGarrigle and Donaldson

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31
Q

What was the procedure of the naughty teddy study in the pre operational study

A

Children where shown identical likes of coins, one was more spread out

16% of 6 year olds said they was the same length

A naughty teddy comes along and kicks the coins

Children asked which line had more coins

60% of 6 year olds said both lines had the same

Children can conserve earlier than Piaget said doubts the accuracy of the pre operational stage

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32
Q

What are piagets stages of development in order

A

Sensori motor stage, pre operational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage

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33
Q

What is thinking like for children in the concrete operational stage

A

Children understand class inclusion

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34
Q

How old are children in the concrete operational stage

A

7-11

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35
Q

What is class inclusion? (Concrete operational)

A

The ability to understand that something may be in more than one category such as an overall group and a sub group

A fruit can also be a berry

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36
Q

Explain piagets bead study ( pre operational )

A

Children where shown 20 beads 18 where brown

Children asked q’s such as ‘are there more brown beads or more wooden beads’

Children in pre operational stage could not answer correctly but children in concrete stage could

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37
Q

Who did the sleeping cow study in the concrete operational stage

A

McGarrigle and Donaldson

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38
Q

What was the sleeping cow study?

A

A study on 6 year olds

4 cows where lying on their side (sleeping)

Asked q’s such as are there more black cows or more cows (25% got it right)

Piaget may have been biased
Piaget underestimated children and used to confusing methodology

39
Q

What major development takes place in the formal operational stage

A

Children learn to think systematically and logically
Children can think hypothetically and can apply abstract terms

Operational thinking has greater flexibility

Individuals can try more than one way to problem solve

40
Q

How did Piaget investigate the formal stage

A

Gave participants 4 beakers which where labelled 1-4 with colourless liquid

Given another beaker ‘G’ with a yellow liquid with mix of chemicals 1 and 3

Told to experiment to make g

Those in concrete stage unsuccessful

Formal operational solved it logically

41
Q

One problem with piagets view of formal operational stage

A

It’s culturally biased

Value placed on logical scientific thinking

Reflects piagets middle class European background

Other cultures different things classed as abstract

42
Q

How does baillargeon challenge Piaget and vygotsky

A

Focus on nature

Infants born with the ability to perceive and understand certain things

43
Q

Why is baillargeon referred to as a nativist theory

A

Baillargeon focussed on the ability’s children are born with and how these sophisticate over time

Natavist = innate

Children born with genetic capacity of knowledge related to objects in physical world

44
Q

What is PRS (baillargeon)

A

Physical reasoning system

45
Q

What does the PRS allow us to do

A

Learn about the physical world easily

E.g object permanence

46
Q

Explain the rabbit violation of expectation study

A

24 infants (5-6 months old) shown a fall or short rabbit passing

Possible condition = tall rabbit passes short rabbit doesn’t

Impossible = neither rabbit seen passings

Infants look longer at impossible situation (33.07s) compared to possible (25.11s)

Infants surprised as expected to see rabbit
5-6 month olds had object permanence

47
Q

In Baillargeon violation of expectation rabbit study how long did the infants look at each event for

A

33.07 seconds - impossible

25.11 seconds - possible

48
Q

Explain the findings of Baillargeon violation of expectation study

A

Children had some innate understanding of the world as they expected to see fall rabbit

Had object permanence younger then Piaget stated

Support Baillargeon that object permanence is innate

49
Q

What is a problem of Baillargeon violation of expectation study

A

Relies on inferences
Can’t be sure what the child understood

50
Q

What is a weakness of Baillargeon theory

A

Claims children learn object permanence innate

Children she studied on where 5-6 months not new born

Weakens trust in Baillargeon

Children may have developed object permanence after birth

51
Q

One similarity between Piaget and vygotsky

A

Childrens cognitive structures mature and develop over time

52
Q

Two differences between Piaget and vygotsky

A

Vygotsky believes language is more Privital than Piaget suggested

Language shapes thoughts

Vygotsky greater emphasis on social factors

53
Q

Why is vygotsky theory referred to as social interactionist theory

A

We learn and develop from those around us as interaction helps cognition

Children start with ability’s that become more sophisticated through help of adults (scaffolding)

54
Q

What is vygotsky’s zone of proximal development

A

The gap between current abilities and potential abilities

What a child can do by themselves and with assistance

Child can only take next steps in cog development if someone supports them

55
Q

Give an example of vygotskys zone of proximal development

A

A child can first sit in water by themselves being held by an adult then they can sit by themselves

56
Q

What does vygotsky mean by scaffolding

A

How we guide children

The process of others providing prompts and support to move a child through the stages of proximal development

By changing levels of involvement

57
Q

What are the 6 stages of scaffolding

A

1) Prepare the task

2) Demonstrate

3) Motivate by talking children through the task

4) encourage them to stay on task

5) encourage them to do more alone

6) encourage them to complete task independently

58
Q

What might you find in a classroom designed by vygotsky

A

Children encouraged to play with each other

Tasks such as ‘building’ where children are guided then left to play

59
Q

What is mirror neurone theory a biological theory of social cognition

A

Suggests our ability to understand intentions and emotional experiences is linked to brain activity at cellular level

60
Q

Where are mirror neurones found in the brain

A

Brodman area of the inferior frontal cortex

61
Q

How do mirror neurones enable us to develop social cognition

A

Allow us to make a link between what others are experiencing and how we would feel in the same situation

Brain cells are activated when we observe actions carried out by another person.
This cell activation is the same as if we had carried out the action ourselves

62
Q

How are mirror neurones different to other neurones

A

They fire both when we observe an individual perform an act and when we perform an act

63
Q

Who discovered mirror neurones

A

Rizolatti

64
Q

How where mirror neurones discovered

A

By chance
Rizolatti
Monkeys had electrodes on different parts of their brain and researches where interested in actions and corresponding brain action
Student ate an ice cream and monkey’s brain copied
Further investigation found neural activity in monkeys brain was same as if monkey was eating ice cream itself

65
Q

How can mirror neurone theory criticise theory of mind and Selman’s theory of cognition

A

Mirror neurones may be responsible for ToM therefore development is biological and not cognitive

66
Q

How can mirror neurones explain autism

A

Broken mirror theory
When mirror neurones do not fire in response to other acts, we may not be able to understand emotions
Faulty thinking = autism

67
Q

What is a strength of mirror neurone theory

A

Fits with evolutionary theory and can help explain evolution of humans as a social animal

Mirror neurones enable us to understand intention emotion and perspective - fundemental requirements for living in social groups

Useful to explain why humans are unique and why some people have ASD from faulty neurones

Important practical applications - used in health system

68
Q

What is a weakness of mirror neurone theory

A

Research is based on inferences

Evidence from mirror neurone activity comes from brain scanning such as fMRI which often has poor temporal resolution

Only accurate measuring is to insert electrodes which is not ethically possible in humans
Direct research is not possible

Might be argued theory is not scientific as other theories, less credible as less reliable weakens confidence

69
Q

How many levels are there in selmans levels of perceptive taking

A

5 including 0

70
Q

What age are you if you are in the egocentric/ undifferentiated level of selmans level of perspective taking

A

3-6

71
Q

Explain the child’s perspective taking at level 1 - social informational (Selman)

A

Children realise others think differently to them, but due to receiving different information

Can only focus on one perspective

Age 6-8

72
Q

Explain the child’s perspective taking at level 2 - self reflective (Selman)

A

Children recognise perspective differs
Can put themselves in ‘someone else’s shoes’
Can not consider other feelings at the same time as their own
Age 8-10

73
Q

Name selmans levels of perspective taking

A

0 - egocentric / undifferentiated
1 - social informational
2 - self reflective
3 - mutual / third party
4 - societal conventional

74
Q

Explain the child’s perspective taking at level 4 - mutual (Selman)

A

Child can simultaneously consider their own and others perspectives

Can anticipate how others will react to opposing views

Age 10-12

75
Q

Explain the child’s perspective taking at level 4 - societal conventional (Selman)

A

Perspectives are compared to general society
Children realise social conventions just be adhered to, to keep order

Age 12-15+

76
Q

What is a strength of selmans level of perspective taking

A

Practical applications

Suggests children are socially unsuccessful when unable to take perspective of others

Therapies have been developed to help children with social and emotional problems to develop their ability to perspective take

Pair therapy involves placing children in pairs and putting them in play situations which provides oppurtunites for their perspective taking to develop

Leads to development of social skills
Provided us with understanding of autism and ADHD

Strength been useful in understanding atypical development and providing assistance to the children

77
Q

Explain a limitation of selmans theory of perspective taking

A

Research is culturally biased

Selmans research was based on American children, can not generalise to all children

Finnish children prefer to discuss solution to conflict, Italian children don’t do this as much

Whilst it may appear children can not take perspective, it doesn’t actually mean they can’t. Children can chose whether to take perspective depending on cultural norms.

Not a full universal explanation

78
Q

What is meant by theory of mind?

A

Theory of mind is the personal understanding of what other people are thinking and feeling

79
Q

When does theory of mind start?

A

When egocentrism is removed around 4 years old

80
Q

What does theory of mind allow us to do?

A

Have some idea of what people may be thinking
See things from other points of view

81
Q

How does theory of mind explain social cognition

A

It suggests young children have a cognitive representative of others

82
Q

Who conducted the sally Anne study

A

Wimmer and perner

83
Q

Explain the sally Anne study

A

Dolls conducted a scenario
Based on false beliefs

Sally puts a marble in a basket and turns away

Anne puts the marble in a box
Children asked where sally will look for the marble

84
Q

What are the findings of the sally Anne study

A

2-3 year olds said sally would look in the box as they could not understand sally would be unaware the marble has been moved
Have not developed ToM

4 year olds successfully complete the task saying sally will look in the basket

85
Q

What is a weakness of the sally Anne studies

A

Methodological issues

Children may have thought the task was silly as dolls can’t think

A certain level of language is also required to understand

Children may appear to not have ToM but may not have the language ability

Limit internal validity of results

Incorrect conclusions about ToM in children

86
Q

What is a strength of ToM as an explanation of social cognition

A

Findings in research seem to be reliable

Other studies have similar results

Perner et al showers children a smarties tube and asked the children what they thought was in the tube ‘smarties’
The tube was opened and children saw it actually had pencils in it

Children then asked
(When I first showed you the tube what did you think was in it) ‘smarties’

Then asked what the next child would think was in the tube
(Only children over 3 answered correct)
Gives us confidence research findings are consistent and ToM is correct with its statements

Reliable explanation

87
Q

What is a weakness of ToM as an explanation of social cognition

A

Lacks internal validity

May not be measuring correct thing

It may actually be measuring perspective taking not recognition that other peoples knowledge differs from our own

Psychologists may be inaccurately investigation area of social cognition

Weakness as limits confidence in theory’s accuracy

88
Q

How does theory of mind explain autism

A

Autistic children have difficulty taking the point of view of others

Lack theory of mind ‘mind blindness’

They can not understand other peoples emotions and intentions - lead to a tendency to take literal interpretations

Lacking ToM may make it hard for autistic children to engage in pretend play

89
Q

Define autism (theory of mind)

A

A profound problem in understanding and coping with the social environment where people find it confusing and unpredictable

90
Q

What is a strength of using theory of mind to explain autism

A

There is evidence to support the argument that autism is related to ToM

Barry Cohen used a quasi experiment employing the sally anne paradigm to asses theory of mind in autistic children

3 groups, Down syndrome, autism, neither conditions
85% in group 2 answered correct
86% Down syndrome correct
20% autism answered correct

Children with autism do not have a fully developed ToM. Could explain symptoms of the disorder
Difficulty with communication

Gives us confidence autism is linked to ToM

91
Q

What is a weakness of ToM explaining ASD

A

Does not explain all symptoms
Explains some well (struggling with social situations)

Does not explain full range of symptoms such as repetitive behaviour

Offers no explanations for these symptoms or the instances exceptional ability is demonstrated by autistic children

Not a full explanation.

92
Q

In what stage did class inclusion occur

A

Concrete operational stage

93
Q

One criticism of piagets pre operational stage

A

Evidence is flawed
Beakers + mountains
Unfamiliar concepts, they might not even understand what they can see

Asked same question twice so think they must’ve said something wrong

94
Q

When does Baillargeon say theory of mind develops

A

4

Psychology (12 decks)

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