Research and Program Evaluation (Research & Program Eval) Flashcards
701. The most valuable type of research is
- *a. always conducted using a factor analysis.**
- *b. conducted using the chi-square.**
- *c. the experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect rela-**
- *tionships.**
d. the quasi-experiment.
A mini pep talk from me to you: Just think of statistics and
research as another area on the test—no easier and no
harder. Most of the students I’ve spoken to who used this
book to study for major exams were surprised to fi nd that
questions related to this section of the test were not that
diffi cult! I shall try c. the experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect rela-
tionships.
keep my explanations simple and
will vary the presentation of the material so that if you
don’t understand it in one way, you’ll comprehend it when
RT58628_C009.indd 385 T58628_C009.indd 385 10/22/2007 4:07:51 PM 0/22/2007 4:07:51 PM
386 Encyclopedia of Counseling
it is explained in a different manner. And lastly, I promise
repetition, repetition, and more repetition!
Experimental research is the process of gathering data in order
to make evaluative comparisons regarding different situations.
An experiment must have the conditions of treatment controlled
via the experimenter and random assignments (also called ran-
domization) used in the groups. An experiment attempts to
eliminate all extraneous variables. In the quasi-experiment (choice “d”) the researcher uses preexisting groups, and hence the IV (independent variable) cannot be altered (e.g., gender or
ethnicity). In a quasi-experiment you cannot state with any de-
gree of statistical confi dence that the IV caused the DV (depen-
dent variable). One popular type of quasi-experiment is known
as the “ex post facto study.” Ex post facto literally means “after
the fact,” connoting a correlational study or research in which
intact, preexisting groups are utilized. In the case of the ex post
facto study, the IV was administered before the research began.
When conducting or perusing a research study a counselor is
very concerned with “internal and external validity.” Threats
to internal validity include maturation of subjects (psychologi-
cal and physical changes including fatigue due to the time in-
volved), mortality (i.e., subjects withdrawing), instruments used
to measure the behavior or trait, and statistical regression (i.e.,
the notion that extremely high or low scores would move toward
the mean if the measure is utilized again). Internal validity
refers to whether the DVs were truly infl uenced by the
experimental IVs or whether other factors had an impact.
External validity, on the other hand, refers to whether the
experimental research results can be generalized to larg- er populations (i.e., other people, settings or conditions).
Thus, if the results of the study only apply to the population in
the study itself then the external validity is said to be low. P.S.:
If it’s been a while and you’ve forgotten terms like IV and DV
just hold your pants on; we’ll get to you in a minute. As for the
other incorrect choices, a “factor analysis” (choice “a”) refers to
statistical procedures that use the important or underlying “fac-
tors” in an attempt to summarize a lot of variables. Hence, a
test which measures a counselor’s ability may try to describe the
three most important variables (factors) that make an effective
helper, although literally hundreds of factors may exist. Using
factor analysis procedures, a brief test that measures the three
major factors maybe able to predict who will be an effective
counselor as accurately as 10 other tests that examine hundreds
of variables or so-called factors. Choice “b” mentions the “chi-
square.” The chi-square is a nonparametric statistical measure
that tests whether a distribution differs signifi cantly from an ex-
pected theoretical distribution.
702. Experiments emphasize parsimony, which means
- *a. interpreting the results in the simplest way.**
- *b. interpreting the results in the most complex manner.**
- *c. interpreting the results using a correlation coeffi cient.**
- *d. interpreting the results using a clinical interview.**
a. interpreting the results in the simplest way.
Parsimonious literally means a tendency to be miserly and not
overspend. A parsimonious individual is said to be overly eco-
nomical and stingy. In research, we strive for parsimony in the
sense that the easiest and less complex explanation is said to be
the best; an economical description if you will. Simply put, the
simplest explanation of the fi ndings is always preferred. The fac-
tor analysis mentioned in the previous answer is parsimonious
in the sense that 10 tests which measure the dimensions of an
effective counselor can be explained via a short measure which
describes three underlying variables. Factor analysis then, is
concerned with data reduction.
- *703. Occam’s Razor suggests that experimenters**
- *a. interpret the results in the simplest manner.**
- *b. interpret the results in the most complex manner.**
- *c. interpret the results using a correlation coeffi cient.**
- *d. interpret the results using a clinical interview.**
a. interpret the results in the simplest manner.
A word to the wise: Exams often refer to parsimony as Occam’s
Razor, the principle of economy, or Lloyd Morgan’s 1894 Canon
(canon in this sense means “law”). Conway Lloyd Morgan was an
English psychologist/physiologist,
- *704. A counselor educator is running an experiment to test a new form of counseling. Unbeknownst to the experimenter one of the clients in the study is secretly seeing a gestalt therapist. This experiment**
- *a. is parsimonious.**
- *b. is an example of Occam’s Razor.**
- *c. is confounded/fl awed.**
- *d. is valid and will most likely help the fi eld of counseling.**
c. is confounded/fl awed.
The experiment is said to be invalid (so much for choice “d”)
due to an extraneous independent variable (IV) (e.g., the gestalt
therapy). Variables which are undesirable confound or “fl aw” the
experiment. The only experimental variable should be the inde-
pendent variable—in this case the new form of counseling. The
IV must have the effect on the dependent variable (here the DV
would be some measure of the client’s mental health). In this
experiment any changes could not be attributed with any degree
of certainty to the new form of counseling since dependent vari-
able changes could be due to the gestalt intervention (an extra-
neous confounding variable). All correlational research is said to
be confounded.
705. Nondirective is to person-centered as
- *a. psychological testing is to counseling.**
- *b. confounding is to experimenting.**
- *c. appraisal is to research.**
- *d. parsimony is to Occam’s Razor.**
d. parsimony is to Occam’s Razor.
A simple analogy question. Nondirective and person-centered
therapy are synonymous; both refer to names given to Rogerian
counseling. Parsimony is roughly synonymous with Occam’s Ra-
zor. Important exam reminder: Most counselors see themselves
as practitioners rather than researchers. Research, nevertheless,
helps the entire fi eld of counseling advance. It has been pointed
out that we know about the work of many famous counselors
and career counselors because of their published research not
because of what transpired in their sessions. Test hint: The
American Psychological Association’s Journal of Counsel-
ing Psychology publishes more counseling research arti-
cles than any other periodical in our fi eld.
- *705. Nondirective is to person-centered as**
- *a. psychological testing is to counseling.**
- *b. confounding is to experimenting.**
- *c. appraisal is to research.**
- *d. parsimony is to Occam’s Razor.**
d. parsimony is to Occam’s Razor.
A simple analogy question. Nondirective and person-centered
therapy are synonymous; both refer to names given to Rogerian
counseling. Parsimony is roughly synonymous with Occam’s Ra-
zor. Important exam reminder: Most counselors see themselves
as practitioners rather than researchers. Research, nevertheless,
helps the entire fi eld of counseling advance. It has been pointed
out that we know about the work of many famous counselors
and career counselors because of their published research not
because of what transpired in their sessions. Test hint: The
American Psychological Association’s Journal of Counsel-
ing Psychology publishes more counseling research arti-
cles than any other periodical in our fi eld.
- *706. An experiment is said to be confounded when**
- *a. undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment.**
- *b. undesirable variables are kept out of the experiment.**
- *c. basic research is used in place of applied research.**
- *d. the sample is random.**
a. undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment.
I hope you didn’t mark choices “b” and “d” since they are neces-
sary for a proper experiment. Confounding is said to occur when
a undesirable variable which is not controlled by the researcher
is introduced in the experiment. Hint: Your exam could re-
fer to this as a contaminating variable. If you missed this
one, fess up and review question 704. Take a good hard look at
choice “c.” Basic research is conducted to advance our under-
standing of theory, while applied research (also called action
research or experience-near research) is conducted to ad-
vance our knowledge of how theories, skills, and techniques can
be used in terms of practical application. Often counselors assert
that much of the research is not relevant to the actual counseling
process and indeed they are correct.
707. In experimental terminology IV stands for _______ and DV stands for _______.
- *a. independent variable; dependent variable.**
- *b. dependent variable; independent variable.**
- *c. individual variable; dependent variable.**
- *d. independent variable; designer variable.**
a. independent variable; dependent variable.
Variables in an experiment are categorized as independent vari-
ables (IVs) or dependent variables (DVs). A variable is merely a
behavior or a circumstance that can exist on at least two levels
or conditions. In plain, simple, everyday English, a variable is
a factor that “varies” or is capable of change. In an experiment
the IV is the variable that the researcher manipulates, controls,
alters, or wishes to experiment with. A neat little memory de-
vice is that IV begins with an “I,” so imagine yourself as the re-
searcher and remember “I manipulate the IV” or “I experiment
with the IV.” The DV expresses the outcome or the data. Here
the memory device is a cinch: DV begins with a “D” and so does
the word data. The DV expresses the data regarding factors you
wish to measure. IVs and DVs—the variables of the experimen-
tal trade—can be discrete (e.g., a brand of counseling or oc-
cupation) or continuous (e.g., height or weight). Exam score
booster: If your exam describes a true experiment—such
as the biofeedback research described in the next several
questions—except for the fact that the groups were not
randomly assigned, then the new exams are calling this a
causal comparative design. Expect to see this term on the
exam. Data gleaned from the causal comparative ex-post
facto or after the fact design can be analyzed with a test
of signifi cance (e.g., a t test or ANOVA) just like any true
experiment.
- A professor of counselor education hypothesized that biofeed-
back training could reduce anxiety and improve the average
- *score on written board exams. If this professor decides to con-**
- *duct a formal experiment the IV will be the _______, and the**
DV will be the _______.
- *a. professor; anxiety level.**
- *b. anxiety level; board exam score.**
- *c. biofeedback; board exam score.**
- *d. board exam score; biofeedback.**
c. biofeedback; board exam score.
Ah, here we have it: the old standby in the fi eld of comprehen-
sive exams. The examinee is given an experiment to ferret out
the IV and DV. Now I’ve got this uncanny feeling that you won’t
be caught by surprise when you see it! Okay, time to plug in your
memory devices. “I manipulate…or I experiment with, well, the
biofeedback training, of course.” The “I” statement here gives
you your “IV.” For your “DV” (remember DV begins with a
“D” like “data”) your data is provided by the board exam score.
True, the researcher here hypothesized that the training lowers
anxiety, but you won’t have any direct data regarding this trait.
Hence it will not be your DV in this experiment.
709. Experimenters should always abide by a code of ethics. The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the
- *a. DV.**
- *b. dependent variable.**
- *c. the variable you will measure to determine the outcome.**
- *d. IV or independent variable.**
d. IV or independent variable.
- *710. In order for the professor of counselor education (see question 708) to conduct an experiment regarding his hypothesis he will**
- *need a(n) _______ and a(n) _______.**
- *a. biofeedback group; systematic desensitization group.**
- *b. control group; systematic desensitization group.**
- *c. control group; experimental group.**
d. at least 60 subjects in the control group; at least 60 subjects in the experimental group.
c. control group; experimental group.
The control group and the experimental group both have the
same characteristics except that members of the control group
will not have the experimental treatment applied to them. In
this case, for example, the control group will not receive the bio-
feedback training. The control group does not receive the
IV. The experimental group receives the IV. The basic pre-
supposition is that the averages (or means) of the groups do not
differ signifi cantly at the beginning of the experiment. Choice
“d” would also be a correct answer if it said 15 per group instead
of 60. Remember that if you cannot randomly assign the
subjects to the two groups then your exam will consider
the research a quasi-experiment. Most experts suggest that
you need at least 30 people to conduct a true experiment. Corre-
lational research requires 30 subjects per variable while a survey
should include at least 100 people.
711. In order for the professor of counselor education to conduct the experiment suggested in question 708 the experimental group would need to receive
- *a. the manipulated IV.**
- *b. the biofeedback training.**
- *c. a and b.**
- *d. the organismic IV.**
c. a and b.
The experimental group receives the IV, which in this case is
the biofeedback training. An organismic variable is one the re-
searcher cannot control yet exists such as height, weight, or gen-
der. To determine whether an organismic IV exists you simply
ask yourself if there is an experimental variable being examined
which you cannot manipulate. In most cases, when you are con-
fronted with IV/DV identifi cation questions, the IV will be of the
“manipulated variety.”
- *712. Hypothesis testing is most closely related to the work of**
- *a. Hoppock.**
- *b. Freud.**
- *c. Lloyd Morgan.**
- *d. R. A. Fisher.**
d. R. A. Fisher.
Hypothesis testing was pioneered by R. A. Fisher. A hypothesis
is a hunch or an educated guess which can be tested utilizing the
experimental model. A hypothesis might be that biofeedback
raises board exam scores; or that reality therapy reduces dys-
functional classroom behavior in high school students; or per-
haps that cognitive therapy relieves depression in males in the
midst of a divorce. A hypothesis is a statement which can be
tested regarding the relationship of the IV and the DV.
713. The null hypothesis suggests that there will not be a significant difference between the experimental group which received them IV and the control group which did not. Thus, if the experiment in question 708 was conducted, the null hypothesis would suggest that
- *a. all students receiving biofeedback training would score**
- *equally well on the board exam.**
- *b. systematic desensitization might work better than bio-**
- *feedback.**
- *c. biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.**
- *d. meta-analysis is required.**
c. biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.
The null hypothesis asserts that the samples will not change (i.e.,
they will still be the same) even after the experimental variable
is applied. Let me say that in a slightly different way: according
to the null hypothesis the control group and the experimental
group will not differ at the end of the experiment. The null hy-
pothesis is simply that the IV does not affect the DV. Null
means “nil” or “nothing.” Null is a statement of “no difference.”
Choice “d” introduces the term meta-analysis, which is a study
that analyzes the fi ndings of numerous studies. Hence, a study
of reality therapy that looked at the results of 20 reality therapy
studies would be a meta-analysis.
c. biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.
The null hypothesis asserts that the samples will not change (i.e.,
they will still be the same) even after the experimental variable
is applied. Let me say that in a slightly different way: according
to the null hypothesis the control group and the experimental
group will not differ at the end of the experiment. The null hy-
pothesis is simply that the IV does not affect the DV. Null
means “nil” or “nothing.” Null is a statement of “no difference.”
Choice “d” introduces the term meta-analysis, which is a study
that analyzes the fi ndings of numerous studies. Hence, a study
of reality therapy that looked at the results of 20 reality therapy
studies would be a meta-analysis.
