Counseling and Helping Relationships (Intro to Counseling/Advance Counseling/Practicum) Flashcards

Question

**An advertising psychologist secretly imbeds the word SEX into** * *newspaper ads intended to advertise his center’s chemical de-** * *pendency program. This is the practice of** * *a. sublimation.** * *b. repression.** * *c. introjection.** * *d. none of the above.**

Answer 1

**d. none of the above.**

Answer 2

**a. displacement.** Here the man yells at his wife instead of kicking the family dog. This is displacement par excellence. Identifi cation (choice “c”) is also a defense mechanism, which results when a person identifi es with a cause or a successful person with the unconscious hope that he or she will be perceived as successful or worthwhile. An- other possibility is that the identifi cation with the other person serves to lower the fear or anxiety toward that person. Finally, a Type II or so-called beta error is a statistical term,

Answer 3

**c. sour grapes rationalization.** Remember the fable in which the fox couldn’t secure the grapes so he said they were probably sour anyway? Well here’s the hu- man equivalent affectionately known as the sour grapes variety of rationalization. “I didn’t really want it anyway,” is the way this one is usually expressed. Choice “d” depicts the “sweet lemon” variety of rationalization. Here the person tells you how won- derful a distasteful set of circumstances really is. Thus, in ratio- nalization the person either underrates a reward (sour grapes) or overrates a reward (sweet lemon) to protect the self from a bruised ego.

Answer 4

**b. sweet lemon rationalization.** In the sweet lemon variety of rationalization the person overrates the situation. In this question the counselor is essentially saying, “Oh, gee, I just love to sweat, it keeps the water weight off of me and keeps my weight down.”

Answer 5

**a. denial.** This is classic denial. The tennis player is failing to face reality.

Answer 6

**c. Projection.**

Answer 7

**a. reaction formation.** In reaction formation the person acts the opposite of the way he or she actually feels. An adult living with a very elderly parent, for example, may spend all his or her time caring for the parent when in reality the individual unconsciously would like to see the elderly person die.

Answer 8

**b. compensation.** Compensation is evident when an individual attempts to develop or overdevelop a positive trait to make up for a limitation

Answer 9

**d. identifi cation.**

Answer 10

**a. introjection** Some- times introjection causes the person to accept an aggressor’s values. A prisoner of war might incorporate the value system of the enemy after a period of time.

Answer 11

**a. resistance.**

Answer 12

* *c. many aspects of his theory are diffi cult to test from a sci-** * *entifi c standpoint.** How can concepts like the id, ego, or unconscious confl icts be directly measured? The answer is that for the most part, they can’t. This has been a major criticism of Freud’s theory.

Answer 13

**b. make the clients aware of their unconscious processes.** Although choices “c” and “d” are not necessarily incorrect, choice “b” is a textbook defi nition of inter- pretation. Freud said that, "The interpretation of dreams is **the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind**."

Answer 14

**b. Alfred Adler’s individual psychology.** The term individual stresses the unique qualities we each pos- sess. Individual psychology is keen on analyzing organ inferiority and methods in which the individual attempts to compensate for it. It is interesting to note that Alfred Adler was a very sickly child. Because of rickets (a disease caused by the absence of vitamin D, the so-called sunshine vitamin), Adler could not walk until age 4. He was then the victim of pneumonia as well as a series of accidents. Thus, for Adler, the major psychological goal is to escape deep-seated feelings of inferiority. Could Adler’s theory refl ect his own childhood? You decide.

Answer 15

**d. insight.** Insight is the “aha, now I understand,” phenomenon. Technically, the term insight is equated with the work of the gestalt psycholo- gist Wolfgang Kohler.

Answer 16

**b. Logos; Eros.** ## Footnote * *Logos implies logic, while eros refers to intuition. Choice “d”** * *uses the terminology, transference and countertransference. In** * *transference, the assumption is that the client will relate to the** * *therapist or counselor as he or she has to signifi cant others. The** * *Freudians are fond of speaking of a “transference neurosis” in** * *which the client is attached to the counselor as if he or she is a** * *substitute parent. Countertransference (also commonly spelled** * *with a hyphen) is said to be evident when the counselor’s strong** * *feelings or attachment to the client are strong enough to hinder** * *the treatment process.**

Answer 17

**a. mandalas.** Jung, the father of analytic psychology, borrowed the term man- dala from Hindu writings in which the mandala was the symbol of meditation. In Jung’s writings the mandala also can stand for a magic protective circle that represents self-unifi cation.

Answer 18

**b. Adler.** Alfred Adler, the father of individual psychology, initially felt that aggressive drives were responsible for most human behaviors. He then altered the the- ory slightly and said that the major factor was the “will to power.” Finally, he concluded that it was the “striving for superiority” or a thirst for perfection that motivated behavior.

Answer 19

**b. Alfred Adler’s theory.** Adler, who broke with Freud in 1911, went on to found a num- ber of child-guidance clinics in which he was able to observe children’s behavior directly. One criticism of Freud has been that his child development theories were not based on extensive research or observations of children’s behavior.

Answer 20

**b. social factors.** Neo-Freudians such as Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Harry Stack Sullivan, and Erich Fromm stressed the importance of cultural (social) issues and, of course, interpersonal (social) relations.

Answer 21

**d. Jung.** The introversion–extroversion distinction deals with inward or outward directiveness.

Answer 22

**d. Jung.** This test is literally given to several million persons each year! The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is said to be the most widely used measure of personality preferences and dispositions. The measure can be used to assess upper elementary children age 12 and over all the way through adulthood and yields a four- letter code, or “type,” based on four bipolar scales. The bipo- lar preference scales are extroversion/introversion; sensing (i.e., current perception)/intuition (i.e., future abstractions and possibilities); thinking/feeling; and judging (i.e., organizing and controlling the outside world)/perceiving (i.e., observing events).

Answer 23

* *b. was the fi rst to discuss the use of group therapy in private** * *practice.** The TAT was introduced in Henry Murray’s 1938 work Explorations in Personality. Murray called the study of the personality “per- sonology.” As for choice “c,” I believe I’d go with Andrew Salter, who wrote The Case Against Psychoanalysis. Salter did ground- breaking work in behavior therapy, which led to the formation of assertiveness training. This information appeared in the 1949 classic Conditioned Refl ex Therapy. In reference to choice “d,” it was Maslow and not Adler who created the hierarchy of needs.

Answer 24

**b. social connectedness.**

Answer 25

* *a. exaggerate the behavior and really do a thorough job** * *shaking in front of the class.** Paradoxical techniques also are associated with the work of Victor Frankl, who pioneered logotherapy, a form of existen- tial treatment. Paradoxical strategies often seem to defy logic as the client is instructed to intensify or purposely engage in the maladaptive behavior. Paradoxical interventions are often the direct antithesis of common sense directives such as choice “b.” Paradoxical methods have become very popular with family therapists due to the work of Jay Haley and Milton H. Erickson. Currently, this technique is popular with family therapists who believe it reduces a family’s resistance to change. Choices “c” and “d” are almost always associated with the so-called cognitive therapies, especially rational-emotive behavior psychotherapy.

Answer 26

**c. anima; animus** These terms were introduced in the section on human growth and development, but just for review purposes and for those who never studied Latin: You can remember that anima is the feminine term as it ends in “ma,” and needless to say, it is com- mon to refer to one’s mother as “ma.” You could also remember animus is the male side of the personality as it ends in “mus” and reminds one of “muscles,” which are generally a male attribute.

Answer 27

**d. archetypes.** archetype, (from Greek archetypos, “original pattern” This is easy to remember if you keep the word archaic in mind. An archetype is actually a primal universal symbol, which means the same thing to all men and women (e.g., the cross). Jung perused literature and found that certain archetypes have ap- peared in fables, myths, dreams, and religious writings since the beginning of recorded history.

Answer 28

**d. all of the above.**

Answer 29

**b. confrontation.** Confrontation could also relate solely to verbal behavior. For ex- ample, a counselor might confront a client about what he says he is doing in his life versus what he is truly doing. The essence of confrontation is to illuminate discrepancies between the client’s and the helper’s conceptualization of a given situation.

Answer 30

* *d. is most likely an analytically trained counselor concerned** * *with symptom substitution.** According to the theory, if you merely deal with the symptom another symptom will man- ifest itself since the real problem is in the unconscious mind. Behaviorists do strive for symptom reduction and do not believe in the concept of symptom substitution.

Answer 31

* *c. attempts to choose the best theoretical approach based** * *on the client’s attributes, resources, and situation.**

Answer 32

**a. Frederick C. Thorne.** It is very important to note that Thorne felt that true eclecticism was much more than “a hodgepodge of facts”; it needed to be rigidly scientifi c. Thorne preferred the term psychological case handling rather than psychotherapy, as he felt the effi cacy of psychotherapy had not been scientifi cally demonstrated.

Answer 33

**c. counter transference.** n psychoanalytic theory, counter-transference **occurs when the therapist projects their own unresolved conflicts onto the clien** In countertransference the counselor’s past is projected onto the client and the helper’s objectivity suffers markedly. A counselor who falls in love with a client or feels extreme anger toward a client is generally considered a victim of countertransference. Choice “a,” cognitive dissonance, suggests that humans will feel quite uncomfortable if they have two incompatible or inconsis- tent beliefs and thus the person will be motivated to reduce the dissonance.

Answer 34

**c. Adler.** Adlerians believe that our lifestyle is a predictable self-fulfi lling prophecy based on our psychological feelings about ourselves. Adler stressed the importance of birth order in the family con- stellation (e.g., the fi rstborn/oldest child could be dethroned by a later child who gets most of the attention; thus the fi rstborn would be prone to experience feelings of inferiority). Firstborns often go to great lengths to please their parents. A second child will often try to compete with a fi rstborn child and often sur- passes the fi rst child’s performance. A middle child (or children) will often feel that he or she is being treated unfairly. Middle children are sometimes seen as being quite manipulative. The youngest child or baby in the family can be pampered or spoiled. The good news is that they often excel by modeling/imitating the older children’s behavior. The concept of birth order has been criticized by some theorists such as Wayne Dyer, famous for his self-improvement book Your Erroneous Zones, which outsold every book written in the decade of the 1970s!

Answer 35

* *b. an Adlerian that believes behavior must be studied in a** * *social context; never in isolation.** You can well imagine why the current family therapy movement has roots in Adlerian theory. Adlerians stress that clients long for a feeling of belonging and strive for perfection.

Answer 36

**b. associationism** ## Footnote The fi rst word in the question gives us a signifi cant clue. That is to say, “existentialism” is a type of philos- ophy. Now existentialism (the philosophy) is compared to “logo- therapy,” which is a brand of psychotherapy. The question then mentions behaviorism, which is a type of psychology and more loosely defi ned as a brand of treatment. So, the question tells you that logotherapy grew out of the philosophy of existentialism and then asks you to fi ll in the blank with the philosophy which led to the formation of behaviorism.

Answer 37

**a. Edward Thorndike’s law of effect.** The “law of effect” simply asserts that responses accompanied by satisfaction (i.e., it pleases you) will be repeated, while those which produce unpleasantness or discomfort will be stamped out.

Answer 38

**d. Ivan Pavlov.**

Answer 39

**c. unconditioned.** From now on, whenever you see the word conditioned, substitute the word learned. When you see the word unconditioned substitute the word unlearned. Now this question becomes a heck of a lot easier, since salivating is an “unlearned” association. The dog need not sign up for a graduate course in behaviorism to learn this response. So, for review pur- poses: conditioned=learned; unconditioned=unlearned.

Answer 40

**a. instrumental learning.** Operant : an item of behavior that is initially spontaneous, rather than a response to a prior stimulus, but whose consequences may reinforce or inhibit recurrence of that behavior. nvolving the modification of behavior by the reinforcing or inhibiting effect of its own consequences (instrumental conditioning) One possible memory device here would be that Skinner’s last name has an “i” as does the word instrumental, whereas the word Pavlov doesn’t.

Answer 41

**a. refl exes.** **_The word refl ex begins with an “r” and_** **_so does the word respondent._** The bottom line: Pavlovian con- ditioning is respondent while Skinner’s is instrumental/operant. (PS.: Please don’t read this if you get confused easily, but the term respondent is generally accredited to Skinner, although it applies to the theoretical notions of Pavlovian conditioning.)

Answer 42

**b. tend to increase the probability that a behavior will occur** All reinforcers—yep, both positive and negative—raise the probability that an antecedent (prior) behavior will occur.All reinforcers—yep, both positive and negative—raise the probability that an antecedent (prior) behavior will occur.

Answer 43

**c. is not the same thing as punishment.** Negative rein- forcement is not punishment. All reinforcers raise or strengthen the probability that a behavior will occur; punishment lowers it. Some tests will * *discriminate between positive and negative punishment. Posi-** * *tive punishment is said to occur when something is added after a** * *behavior and the behavior decreases, while negative punishment** * *takes place when a stimulus is removed following the behavior** * *and the response decreases.**

Answer 44

**c. decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.** behavior modifi ers value reinforcement over punishment.

Answer 45

**a. CS; UCS** * *It went like this: “In the U.S. we eat a lot of meat.” In** * *the Pavlovian experiment, the U.S. (which is sometimes written** * *UCS) is the unconditioned (think unlearned) stimulus, or the** * *meat.**

Answer 46

**d. is .5 or 1⁄2 of a second.** As the interval exceeds 1⁄2 second, more trials are needed for ef- fective conditioning. How will you remember that the CS comes before the US? Just remember that “c” comes before “u” in the alphabet. common sense would dictate that the reinforcer (the meat/US) would come after the bell (the CS) to reinforce it. When the CS is delayed until the US occurs, the procedure is known as “delay condi- tioning.” If, however, the CS terminates before the occurrence of the US, it is termed “trace conditioning.” Here’s a slick and easy-to-use memory device. Trace begins with “t” and so does termination. In trace conditioning, the CS will terminate prior to the onset of the US (or UCS as it will be abbreviated on some

Answer 47

**d. no conditioning.** Whether you put the cart before the horse, “u” before “c” in the alphabet, or the UCS before the CS, it just doesn’t work. This is called backward conditioning. Generally backward conditioning is ineffective and doesn’t work. Note: The exam you are taking could refer to the typical classical conditioning process where the CS comes before the UCS as “forward conditioning” to dis- tinguish it from “backward conditioning.”

Answer 48

**c. stimulus generalization or what Pavlov termed irradiation.** Stimulus generalization, also called “second order conditioning,” occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS (the bell) produces the same reaction. Hence, a car horn, a piano key, or a buzzer on a stove timer could conceivably pro- duce the same reaction as the bell.

Answer 49

**d. stimulus discrimination.** Stimulus discrimination is nearly the opposite of stimulus gen- eralization. Here the learning process is “fi ne tuned,” if you will, to respond only to a specifi c stimulus. In this example, the dog would be taught to salivate only when the department chairman sounds his horn.

Answer 50

**a. experimental neurosis set in.** “Stop it, you’re driving this dog crazy,” would be the correct re- sponse to this question. Pavlov termed this phenomenon “ex- perimental neurosis.” When the differentiation process becomes too tough because the stimuli are almost identical, the dog will show signs of emotional disturbance.

Answer 51

**c. extinction, and the salivation will disappear.** Most experts believe that the CR is not eliminated but is suppressed, or what is generally called “inhibited.” The rationale for this position is that if the animal is given a rest, the CR (i.e., the salivation in this example) will reappear, though it will be weaker. This phenomenon has been called “spontaneous recovery.” In Skinnerian or operant condi- tioning, extinction connotes that reinforcement is withheld and eventually the behavior will be extinguished (eliminated).

Answer 52

**c. Little Albert.** The signifi cance of the Little Albert case was that it demonstrat- ed that fears were “learned” and not the result of some uncon- scious confl ict.

Answer 53

**d. extinction.** when using extinction the behavior will get worse before it is eliminated. This tendency technically is called a response burst or an extinction burst. Ignoring a behavior is a common method of extinction as is the practice of time-out, where the client or student is isolated from reinforcement.

Answer 54

**d. a and c** Technically, behavior modifi cation is Skinnerian (i.e., operant, instrumental) , while behavior therapy is Pavlovian (i.e., classical, respondent) .

Answer 55

* *b. by charting the occurrence of the behavior prior to any** * *therapeutic intervention.** **T**he baseline indicates the frequency of the behavior untreated and is sometimes signifi ed in the literature on a chart using an upper case letter A.

Answer 56

**c. Neal Miller.** Miller and Banuazizi showed that by utilizing rewards rats could be trained to alter heart rate and intestinal contrac- tions. Prior to this experiment it was thought that automatic or “autonomic” bodily processes (such as heart rate, intestinal contractions, or blood pressure) could not be controlled.

Answer 57

**a. a phobia could be a learned behavior.** The psychoanalytic or Freudian theory espoused the notion that a fear was the result of an unconscious confl ict. This is why ana- lytic psychology is often called “depth psychology.” Something is assumed to be wrong deep below the level of awareness.

Answer 58

**a. cure.** John B. Watson demonstrated that a phobic reaction was “learned,” while Mary Cover Jones demonstrated that “learning”

Answer 59

**b. stimulus generalization.** This is simple enough to remember, since in stimulus generaliza- tion the fear “generalizes.”

Answer 60

**d. Freud’s topographic hypothesis.**

Answer 61

**c. a treatment model.** You must be familiar with the word paradigm, which is utilized excessively in this fi eld. A paradigm is a “model.” Many tests will use the term active therapy or “active-direc- tive” therapy to delineate the directive paradigm.

Answer 62

**c. using concreteness.** Concreteness is also known as “specifi city” in some of the litera- ture. The counselor uses the principle of concreteness in an at- tempt to eliminate vague language.

Answer 63

**b. a directive.** When used in the context of counseling, a directive is merely a suggestion.

Answer 64

**a. A bathroom scale** Biofeedback does not change the client, it merely provides the client and helper with biological information. **_A scale and a mirror are two simple examples._** biofeedback devices are used primarily to teach clients to relax or to control auto- nomic (i.e., automatic) nervous system functions such as blood pressure, pulse rate, or hand temperature.

Answer 65

**d. positive reinforcement.**

Answer 66

**c. the counselor’s ability to be himself or herself.** The counselor who is congruent is real and authentic.

Answer 67

* *a. the ability to understand the client’s world and to com-** * *municate this to the client.** Robert Carkhuff is very well known for his creation of a 5-point scale intended to measure empathy, genuineness, concreteness, and respect.

Answer 68

**b. positive reinforcer; negative reinforcer**

Answer 69

**d. higher order conditioning.** In this case, the light (which is a neutral stimulus) has taken on the power of the bell.

Answer 70

**a. a temperature trainer.**

Answer 71

**c. EMG feedback.** Why not remember that the **“M” in EMG refers to muscle?**

Answer 72

* *a. a lower-probability behavior is reinforced by a higher-** * *probability behavior.** For test purposes know the acronyms LPB (low-probability be- havior) and HPB (high-probability behavior). The principle as- serts that any HPB can be used as a reinforcer for any LPB.

Answer 73

**c. EEG feedback.** **EEG is used to secure feedback related to brain wave rhythms.** Electroencephalogram (EEG) based neurofeedback (NFB) is **a method in which brain activity is modulated via self-induced increases or decreases in the power of selected EEG frequency bands**

Answer 74

**c. continuous reinforcement.** This is easy enough to remember. In continuous reinforcement you “continue” to provide the reinforcement each time the tar- get behavior occurs.

Answer 75

**a. ratio; interval** classes of intermittent or partial reinforcement are ratio and interval. You can remember that “interval” is based on time rather than the number of responses, since in this soci- ety we use the phrase “time interval.”

Answer 76

**d. variable ratio.** ## Footnote In operant conditioning, a variable-ratio schedule is **a schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses**. 1 This schedule creates a steady, high rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule. The memory device I use is VR, which reminds me of the vo- cational rehabilitation agency. I remember that this agency is better than an agency going by FI (fi xed interval), etc.

Answer 77

**d. standard units of dysfunction scale.** ## Footnote The subjective units of distress scale, or SUDS for short, is used to help create choice “b,” the anxiety hierarchy. In the SUDS,0 is used to convey a totally relaxed state, while 100 is the most anxiety-producing state a client can imagine. According to the “Yerkes- Dodson Law,” a moderate amount of arousal actually improves performance! Thus, mild anxiety often can be a plus, since it keeps arousal at a moderate level. (High arousal is more appropriate for simple tasks rather than complex ones, such as a licensing exam.)

Answer 78

**c. secondary reinforcement.** When a stimulus accompanies a reinforcer it can literally acquire reinforcement properties of its own like an actual or so-called primary reinforcer. When this occurs it is termed as “secondary reinforcement.”

Answer 79

**b. a back-up reinforcer.** A backup reinforcer is the best answer here since by defi nition a backup reinforcer is an item or an activity which can be pur- chased using tokens. A strict behaviorist would assert that choice“d” is incorrect because backup reinforcers are often unconditioned

Answer 80

**d. aversive conditioning.** The idea here is to pair the alcohol with an aversive, somewhat unpleasant stimulus to reduce the satisfaction of drinking it. Ethical dilemmas are common when using this technique. Some clients have died from Antabuse. Techniques like these are known as “in vivo aversive condition- ing” since they are not performed in the imagination.

Answer 81

**a. imagining that she is calling the airlines for reservations.** In systematic desensitization the order of the hierarchy is from least anxiety-arousing to the most anxiety-evoking items. Behav- iorists note that the ideal hierarchy has 10 to 15 evenly spaced items.

Answer 82

**b. behavioral rehearsal.** The counselor in this case might also switch roles and model assertive behavior for the client.

Answer 83

* *d. relaxation training, construction of anxiety hierarchy, de-** * *sensitization in imagination, and in vivo desensitization.** Several important points need to be mentioned here. The fi rst is that your exam may refer to desensitization in imagination as “interposition.” in this case, the relaxation obscures the anxiety of the imagined scene in the hierarchy.) The second point is that it is best if hier- archy items are evenly spaced using the SUDS. If items are too far apart, moving up the hierarchy could prove nearly impos- sible. On the other hand, if items are spaced too close together, then the helping process will be unusually slow, and behaviorists place a premium on rapid, effi cacious treatment. Lastly, the “in vivo” stage implies that the client will actually expose himself or herself to the scary situations in the hierarchy. Experts believe that “in vivo” experiences should not begin until the client has been desensitized to 75% of the hierarchy items.

Answer 84

**d. sensate focus** Sensate focus is a form of behavioral sex therapy developed by William H. Masters and Virginia Johnson of St. Louis, Missouri. Like Joseph Wolpe’s systematic desensitization, this approach relies on counterconditioning. A couple is told to engage in touching and caressing (to lower anxiety levels) on a graduated basis until intercourse is possible.

Answer 85

**c. covert sensitization.** What is covert sensitization therapy? **a behavior therapy technique for reducing an undesired behavior in which the client imagines performing the undesired behavior (e.g., overeating) and then imagines an unpleasant consequence (e.g., vomiting)**. Keep in mind when answering behavior therapy questions that the word desensitization means to make one less sensitive while the word sensitization implies that one is made more sen- sitive to a stimulus. A counselor who tells an alcoholic to imagine that a drink nauseates him would be relying on “covert sensiti- zation.” The client is then instructed to imagine a relief scene such as an enjoyable feeling when the alcohol is removed and replaced with a glass of water.

Answer 86

**a. implosive therapy is always conducted in the imagination.** Here’s a superb memory device: implosive therapy begins with an “i” and so does the word imagination. Implosive therapy (the brainchild of T. G. Stampfl ) is always conducted using the imagination and sometimes relies on psychoanalytic symbol- ism. Flooding, which is similar, usually occurs when the client is genuinely exposed to the feared stimulus. Flooding is also called “deliberate exposure with response prevention.” Here is how fl ooding works. Take a man who is afraid of snakes because he feels they will bite him. Using fl ooding, the client would be exposed to the snake for nearly an hour without the dreaded snake bite. Research has demonstrated that in vivo procedures like fl ooding are extremely effective in cases of agoraphobia (a fear of open places) and obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD). Flooding and implosive therapy do not necessarily utilize relax- ation nor do they introduce the fearful stimuli gradually.

Answer 87

* *d. the effects of punishment are usually temporary and it** * *teaches aggression.** The great behavior modifi er B. F. Skinner did not believe pun- ishment was very effective. He felt that after the punishment was administered the behavior would manifest itself once again. Positive measures are seen as more effective than punishment.

Answer 88

**b. the counselor is utilizing many closed-ended questions.** A closed-ended question can be answered with “yes” or “no.” Counselors prefer open-ended questions, which produce more information. If the aforemen- tioned counselor wanted to rephrase the question in an open- ended manner, she could ask, “Can you tell me about the things in your life you fi nd so depressing?”

Answer 89

**d. sympathy.** Sympathy often implies pity, while accurate empathy is the ability to experience another person’s subjective experience. EMDR: Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing, a technique created by Francine Shapiro to deal with traumatic memories. In the spring of 1987 Shapiro—then a graduate psy- chology student—accidentally noticed that disturbing memories began to abate when she was moving her eyes back and forth while strolling through the park.

Answer 90

**b. parroting and is not recommended.** If you parrot a client, the client’s response may be something like, “Yes, I just said that!” Parroting can cause the client to feel angry and uneasy.

Answer 91

**a. healing through meaning.** Frankl also has been thought of as the Father of paradoxical in- tention. Paradoxical intention is implemented by advising the client to purposely exaggerate a dysfunctional behavior in the imagination. You might fi nd it a bit paradoxical (no pun intend- ed) that a technique which comes from logotherapy—which is clearly a brand of helping based on existential philosophy—is now generally categorized as a behavioristic technique. Recent- ly, counselors have gone beyond the paradoxical imagination and actually prescribe that the client engage in the dysfunctional be- havior. (For example, a person with OCD or obsessive-compul- sive disorder might be instructed to wash his or her hands 51 times per day instead of the usual 45 times.)

Answer 92

**a. Plato and Epictetus.** Existentialism is considered a humanistic form of helping in which the counselor helps the client discover meaning in his or her life by doing a deed (e.g., an accomplishment), experi- encing a value (e.g., love), or suffering (e.g., Frankl discovered that even being held hostage in a concentration camp could not take away his dignity). Existential counseling rejects analy- sis and behaviorism for being deterministic and reductionistic. The existential viewpoint developed as a reaction to the analytic and behavioral schools and stresses growth and self-actualiza- tion. the Stoic philosopher Epictetus said, “Men are disturbed not by things, but of the view which they take of them.” This statement captures the major premise of REBT. ``` Important exam hint: REBT was formerly known as rational- emotive therapy (RET). ```

Answer 93

**d. being too vague regarding techniques and procedures.** Existential counseling is more of a philosophy of helping than a grab bag of specifi c intervention strategies. Critics charge that it is not a systematic approach to treatment. The behaviorists assert that it is abstract and not scientifi c. The approach rejects traditional diagnosis and assessment procedures.

Answer 94

**b. the client’s perception in the here-and-now.** ## Footnote * *The focus is on what the person can ultimately become. The** * *present and even the future are emphasized. The key to change** * *is seen as self-determination.**

Answer 95

**c. the relationship is horizontal.** A horizontal relationship (e.g., I-Thou) assumes equality be- tween persons.

Answer 96

**c. Yalom and May.** Rollo May introduced existential therapy in the United States. Irvin Yalom, another existentialist, is noted for his work in group therapy. In his book, Love’s Executioner, he reveals his ap- proach to treatment with some of his most intriguing clients. Other names that appear in the answer choices to this question include: Fritz Perls, the Father of gestalt therapy; Albert Ellis, who pioneered REBT; Arthur Janov, noted for his primal scream therapy; and Aaron T. Beck, whose cognitive therapy resembles REBT; if the name Stampfl doesn’t ring a bell, review question

Answer 97

**d. physical; relationship; identity** Try this if you are searching for a memory device. Mitwelt has the prefi x “mi,” which sounds like “my” as in “my wife” or “my brother” or “my son”; the “my” shows possessiveness indica- tive of a “relationship.” Eigenwelt sounds suspiciously like the word identity. By a process of elimination you would not need a memory device for the remaining term Umwelt (the physical and biological system).

Answer 98

* *b. that you can’t control the environment, but you can con-** * *trol your response.** From 1942 to 1945 Frankl was a prisoner in German concen- tration camps, including Auschwitz and Dachau. Several of his relatives died in the camps. Frankl felt, nonetheless, that suffer- ing would be transformed into achievement and creativity.

Answer 99

**a. free choice, decision, and will.** client to fi nd meaning in life so the client can write his or her own life story by making meaningful choices. When exploring the meaning of life some anxiety is normal. Moreover, death is not seen as an evil concept but rather an entity which gives meaning to the process of life.

Answer 100

**d. the philosophy of being and existing.** The metaphysical study of life experience is called ontology. Please do not confuse this with “oncology”

Answer 101

**b. reality therapy.** choice “c,” is a technique used by rational-emotive behavior therapists in which the client is to imagine that he or she is in a situation which has traditionally caused emotional disturbance. The client then imagines chang- ing the feelings via rational, logical, scientifi c thought. Choice “d” refers to rational behavior therapy (some exams call it ratio- nal self-counseling), created by psychiatrist Maxie C. Maultsby, Jr., who studied with Albert Ellis. This approach relies on REBT; however, the client performs a written self-analysis. Maultsby claims the technique is well-suited to problems of substance abuse, and it is highly recommended as a method of multicul- tural counseling.

Answer 102

**a. control theory, later referred to as choice theory.** Reality therapy exam questions often use the abbreviation BCP, which means that perception controls our behavior. Choice the- ory asserts than the only person whose behavior we can control is our own. According to control/choice theory, our behavior is our best attempt to control our world to satisfy our wants and needs. rolfi ng, is not a traditional form of talk therapy but rather a type of deep muscle massage which is as- sumed to have an impact on the person’s emotional state. Hint: * *Exams should be using the new term choice theory. Neverthe-** * *less, some might still be using the old term control theory.**

Answer 103

**a. the client’s childhood is explored.** According to choice theory the person’s childhood may have contributed to the problem. However, the past is never really the problem. The client’s childhood is usually not explored, and if the client brings it up, the reality therapist will often try to emphasize childhood successes, feeling that an analysis of the diffi culties could actually reinforce maladaptive patterns. Reality therapy is a present moment form of counseling which focuses on the here-and-now. According to a strict behaviorist, the envi- ronment controls behavior. According to Glasser, the individual controls the environment.

Answer 104

**c. paraphrasing.**

Answer 105

**d. silence** Veteran counselors believe that some of the most valuable ver- balizations occur after a period of silence. Silence gives the cli- ent time to assimilate the counseling process and is helpful in nondirective therapies because it coaxes the client to direct the session.????

Answer 106

**d. successful behaviors.** Glasser believes that dwelling on past failures can reinforce a negative self-concept, or what reality therapists have termed the “failure identity.”

Answer 107

**b. diagnostic labels give clients permission to act sick or irresponsible.** Reality therapy has little use for the formal diagnostic process, or what is known in clinical circles as “nosology.” Glasser rejected this traditional medical model of disease.

Answer 108

**c. like that of a friend who asks what is wrong.** Unlike the detached psychoanalyst, the reality therapist literally makes friends with the client. This is the fi rst of eight steps uti- lized in this model. Step 7 is refusing to use punishment, making choice “d” a no go here.

Answer 109

**d. Schools Without Failure.** Glasser also authored choices “a” and “c” as well as his original 1965 classic, Reality Therapy, and an update of the theory in his 2000 book Reality Therapy in Action.

Answer 110

* *a. that the client and counselor be persistent and never give** * *up.** Even when the client wants to give up, the therapist does not. Glasser’s theory has been criticized on the basis that it is too sim- plistic. Unlike most of the other schools of thought discussed in this guide, Reality therapy has not been included in some texts and dictionaries of psychology.

Answer 111

**a. jogging.** Glasser stressed that peo- ple can be addicted to positive behaviors and this helps to instill self-confi dence. A positive addiction must be a noncompetitive activity which can be performed alone for about one hour each day. Moreover, the person can see that performing the activity will lead to personal improvement. Lastly, the person needs to be capable of performing the activity without becoming self- critical.

Answer 112

**c. summarization.**

Answer 113

**b. success** The individual who possesses a success identity feels worthy and signifi cant to others. Identity is a person’s most important psy- chological need. A person who is irresponsible, and thus frus- trated in an attempt to feel loved and worthwhile, will develop a failure identity and a faulty perception of reality.

Answer 114

**a. Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT).** Analytically trained New York clinical psychologist Ellis is the Father of REBT, which assumes that the client’s emotional dis- turbance is the result of irrational thoughts and ideas. The cure is a high dose of rational thinking.

Answer 115

**d. a and b.** The credo here is a simple one: Talk sense to yourself. When you change your thinking you can change your life.

Answer 116

* *b. Epictetus, a stoic philosopher who suggested we feel the** * *way we think.** Epictetus said: “People are disturbed not by things, but by the views they take of them.” In addition to Epictetus, Ellis also men- tioned Alfred Korzybski, the founder of general semantics, and Karen Horney, who fi rst recognized the “tyranny of the shoulds” when refl ecting on the creation of Ellis’s REBT theory. Ellis was quick to quote a statement from Hamlet: “There’s nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so.” Buber and Jaspers are associated with existential therapy, while Locke’s work closely resembled what later came to be known as behaviorism.

Answer 117

**b. activating event; belief system; emotional consequence**

Answer 118

* *c. disputing the irrational behavior at B; a new emotional** * *consequence** Some of the literature by Ellis refers to E as “an effective new philosophy of life.” The theory, then, is that you create your own present emotional and behavioral diffi culties. And talk about op- timistic: Ellis believes that no matter how bad life seems, you always—that’s right, always—have the power to ameliorate in- tense feelings of despair, anxiety, and hostility.

Answer 119

**a. bibliotherapy.** Bibliotherapy is the use of books or writings pertaining to self- improvement. A Guide to Rational Living, affectionately known as “the Guide”, is Ellis’s best known work. The title of his 1988 work, How to Stubbornly Refuse to Make Yourself Miserable about Anything—Yes, Anything! captures the essence of his theory. To state that Ellis is a prolifi c writer would be to put it mildly. He has published over 500 papers and written about 50 books! Choice “c” uses the term musturbation, coined by El- lis. Musturbation occurs when a client uses too many shoulds, oughts, and musts in his or her thinking. Some exams may refer to this as “absolutist thinking.”

Answer 120

**a. musturbations** ## Footnote When a preference becomes a dogmatic must or a should, then you can bet that the client is in for a case of emotional distur- bance.

Answer 121

**d. awfulizing and terriblizing, also known as catastrophizing.** Choice “d” would occur at point B,

Answer 122

**b. homework.** Yes, homework. I’m sure the word rings a bell if you think back to graduate school. In the context of counseling, homework takes place whenever the counselor gives the client an assign- ment which is to be done outside the counseling session. Bib- liotherapy is a prime example. Therapies that basically “teach” ``` the client (e.g., REBT) are known as “didactic” models of treat- ment. ```

Answer 123

**c. irrational thinking at point B** Ellis believes you can be happy even if you are the survivor of numerous childhood traumas. For test purposes please keep in mind that Ellis, Glasser, and the behaviorists put little stock in the notion of transference.

Answer 124

* *a. refuting irrational ideas and replacing them with rational** * *ones.** This is the process of changing your thoughts ergo your feelings via self-talk, or what Ellis often called internal verbalizations. REBT clients often receive emotional control cards from their therapist that delineate irrational ideas and what one can think rationally to combat these unhealthy thoughts. The act of chang- ing the client’s mode of thinking is sometimes called cognitive disputation. REBT therapists also use imaginal disputation (i.e., imagery to help with the process) and urge clients to behave in different patterns (i.e., behavioral disputation).

Answer 125

* *d. only man thinks in declarations (internal sentences that** * *can cause or ward off emotional discord).** As far as choice “a” is concerned it is incorrect inasmuch as Ellis fi rmly believed that his theory promotes scientifi c thinking, and lower animals may be incapable of such thought. Ellis described what he called the ABC theory of personality. At point A, there is an activating event; at point B, the person’s belief system; and at point C, the emotional consequence. According to Ellis, most therapies can be faulted for not emphasizing irrational beliefs at point B. Such theories wrongly assert that A causes C.

Answer 126

**b. pictures in your mind** A matter of semantics? Perhaps. Glasser insists that behavior is internally motivated and we choose our actions.

Answer 127

**a. RBT.** Maultsby is the Father of rational-behavior therapy, which is sim- ilar to REBT but emphasizes a written self-analysis. Maultsby’s technique is said to work well for multicultural counseling and group therapy. In group work the counselor has a didactic or a teaching role in which participants are taught to apply the tech- niques to their own lives. The leader encourages equal group participation for all members and gives reading assignments (i.e., bibliotherapy) between the sessions. All in all, the leader is high- ly directive and uses RBT as a model for self-help. Like REBT, RBT utilizes rational-emotive imagery on a regular basis. Choice “d” describes an old abbreviation of stimulus-response behav- ioral psychology. REBT and RBT are not fond of this model be- cause it asserts that a stimulus (or what Ellis has basically termed an activating event at point A) causes a response (or what Ellis calls the consequence at point C). The S-R model, according to Ellis, is guilty of leaving out B, the client’s belief system. Thus, although Ellis might concede that the S-R paradigm explains rat behavior, it is inadequate when applied to human beings. The S-R model also has been called the “applied behavior analysis” or “radical behaviorism” by B. F. Skinner. Radical behaviorism makes the assumption that the environment maintains and sup- ports behavior and that only overt behaviors are the subject of treatment. The treatment? You guessed it—Skinnerian operant conditioning, of course.

Answer 128

* *a. dysfunctional ideas are too absolute and broad though not** * *necessarily irrational.** Beck’s contention was that depression is the result of a cognitive triad of negative beliefs re- garding oneself, one’s future, and one’s experience. Beck’s model has indeed been shown to be applicable in cases of phobia and anxiety. Since Beck disliked the term irrational ideas, he em- phasized “rules” or “formulas of living” which cause unhappi- ness, and he suggested new rules which the client can test. His daughter Judy Beck is now helping to popularize this approach. Note: Some exams use the word metacognition to describe an individual’s tendency to be aware of his or her own cognitions or cognitive abilities.

Answer 129

**b. Donald Meichenbaum.** **Meichenbaum’s approach is called “Self-Instructional Therapy.”** Implementation of his so-called stress-inoculation technique has three basic phases. First the client is involved in an “educational phase.” Here the client is taught to monitor the impact of inner dialogue on behavior. Next clients are taught to rehearse new self-talk. This is the “rehearsal phase.” Finally, the “application phase” is where new inner dialogue is attempted during actual stress-producing situations. Counselor educators often classify approaches which dwell on cognition, while emphasizing behav- ioral strategies for change (e.g., REBT, RBT, self-instructional therapy) as “cognitive-behavioral approaches” to helping.

Answer 130

**c. gestalt therapy** Choice “c,” the correct answer, may seem to make about as much sense as trying to mix water and oil since TA, from a pure standpoint of classifi cation, is a cognitive approach, while gestalt is experiential. The well-known counselor educator Gerald Co- rey suggested that this marriage made in therapeutic heaven was actually positive inasmuch as gestalt therapy emphasized the af- fective exploration that was missing from TA, which was too in- tellectual. In other words, one emphasized what was missing in the other.

Answer 131

**a. Nurturing Parent and the Critical Parent** The Parent ego state is the synthesis of the messages received from parental fi gures and signifi cant others, incorporated into the personality. Also known as the “exteropsyche,” it bears a very strong resemblance to Freud’s superego. When a counselor ana- lyzes out of which ego state a client is primarily operating, it is known as “structural analysis.” When a counselor analyzes an ego state within an ego state (e.g., the Critical Parent or the Nur- turing parent) it is known as “second order structural analysis.” A statement like, “Get some rest honey, you’ve been studying the NCE material for a long time and you deserve the rest,” is an example of the Nurturing Parent. The Nurturing parent is sym- pathetic, caring, and protective. The critical parent, on the other hand, might remark, “You should get off your duff and study that NCE material; how in the heck do you plan on passing?” The Critical Parent is the master of the shoulds, oughts, and musts. On occasion, you will see the parent broken down into another part, the Prejudicial Parent. The Prejudicial Parent is opinion- ated with biases not based on fact. “Women should always wear dresses to work,” or “a real man enlists in the marines,” would be examples. The death or absence of a parent can result in what TA counselors call an “Incomplete Parent state.”

Answer 132

**d. processes facts and does not focus on feelings.** The Adult corresponds to Freud’s ego. It is also known as the “neopsyche.” It is rational, logical, and does not focus on feelings. Choices “a” and “c” describe the Parent ego state.

Answer 133

**d. all of the above.** The Child state, sometimes called the “archaeopsyche,” re- sembles Freud’s id. The Natural Child is what the person would be naturally: spontaneous, impulsive, and untrained. The little professor is creative and intuitive. The Little Professor acts on hunches, often without the necessary information. The adapted child learns how to comply to avoid a parental slap on the hand. Messages we receive from parents to form the ego states are called “injunctions” and cause us to make certain early life deci- sions. Hence, if an early message was, “I wish you would have never been born,” then the decision might be, “If my life gets very stressful, I’ll just kill myself.” Hint: Describing the client using the P-A-C conceptualization is known as “structural analy- sis.”

Answer 134

**a. occur where vectors of communication run parallel.** Choice “a” is a “complementary” transaction in which you get an appropriate, predicted response. The “crossed transaction” (note choice “b”) would occur when vectors from a message sent and a message received do not run parallel. (For example, I send a message from my Adult to your Adult and you respond from your Adult to my Child.) Crossed transactions result in a dead- lock of communication or a host of hurtful feelings. This princi- ple probably won’t be diffi cult to remember. We generally say it is not a good thing when individuals work at “cross” purposes. In TA a “crossed transaction” is not conducive to healthy communi- cation. Note: See “Graphical Representations” (chapter 13). TA therapists often use diagrams or pictorial representations in the treatment process.

Answer 135

**b. blames others for misery.** Tom Harris suggested four basic life positions. Choices “a,” “c,” and “d” are indicative of the “I’m Not OK—You’re OK” position. A self-abusive person is sometimes known as a “masochistic per- sonality” in the literature. In an extreme case this position would lead the person to suicide. According to Harris the “I’m OK— You’re OK” orientation is what successful winners choose. The “I’m OK—You’re Not OK” is the position taken by adolescent delinquents and adult criminals. Such persons feel victimized and are often paranoid. In extreme cases this person may see homicidal behavior as an acceptable solution to life’s problems. The “I’m Not OK—You’re Not OK” is the most pessimistic po- sition. This position could result in schizoid behavior and, in a worst case scenario, the tendency to kill someone else and then take one’s own life.

Answer 136

* *d. the man has moved from the persecutor, to the rescuer, to** * *the victim role.** Karpman suggested that only three roles are necessary for ma- nipulative drama: persecutor, rescuer, and victim. A drama is similar to a TA “game,” yet it has a greater number of events and the person switches roles during the course of the interaction. In TA, a game is a transaction with a concealed motive. Games prevent honest intimate discussion, and one player is always left with negative feelings. Games have a predictable outcome as a result of ulterior transactions. An ulterior transaction occurs when a disguised message is sent. Hint: The act of looking at the consequences of games is known as “game analysis.”

Answer 137

**c. contracting.** Using choice “a,” the empty chair technique, the person imag- ines that another individual is in a chair in front of him or her, and then the client talks to the person. The technique is popular in TA as well as in the gestalt model. **Contracting, nevertheless,** * *is the only technique listed that is used readily by TA and behav-** * *ior therapists.**

Answer 138

* *b. In a first-degree game the harm is minimal, but the level** * *of harm is quite serious in a third-degree game.** It is easy to remember that the higher the number the greater the hurt. For example, a second-degree game is more hurtful than a fi rst-degree. In the fi rst-degree game the hurt is innocu- ous; in the second-degree game the hurt is more serious; while in third-degree games the hurt can be permanent or on occasion deadly. And, oh yes, as far as choice “d” is concerned: Some ex- ams will refer to parallel vectors of communication as “comple- mentary transactions.”

Answer 139

When a client manipulates others to experience a childhood feeling, the result is called a “racket.” (Note: in TA the expe- rience of trying to secure these feelings is known as “collect- ing trading stamps.”) Choice “b,” or the life script, is a person’s ongoing drama which dictates how a person will live his or her life. Claude Steiner has written extensively on scripts. His book, Scripts People Live, suggests three basic unhealthy scripts: no RT58628\_C005.indd 220 T58628\_C005.indd 220 11/2/2007 10:12:13 AM 1/2/2007 10:12:13 AM Theories of Counseling and the Helping Relationship 221 love, no mind, and no joy. It is like a theatrical plot based on early parental messages (often called injunctions in TA). Choice “d,” abbreviated ANOVA, is a statistical technique used to deter- mine differences between two or more means. Hold your hors- es, we’ll get to statistics soon enough. Does domestic violence have a script? Well, I guess the answer is kind of, sort of. According to Dr. Leonore Walker, who researched wom- en in abusive relationships, there is a cycle of violence with three phases. First, there is a tension building phase where arguments erupt very easily. Many women have dubbed this as the “walking on eggshells phase.” Then there is the battering or acute incident phase where the actual fi ght or abuse sexual abuse, or worse yet homicide occurs. Finally, there is a makeup phase often referred to as the honeymoon phase characterized by romantic moonlight dinners, the “I’ll never do it again” lines, and the deliveries from the local fl ower shops. As time goes by the couple goes through the phases more rapidly and the honeymoon phase may not even exist. When a client manipulates others to experience a childhood feeling, the result is called a “racket.” (Note: in TA the expe- rience of trying to secure these feelings is known as “collect- ing trading stamps.”) Choice “b,” or the life script, is a person’s ongoing drama which dictates how a person will live his or her life. Claude Steiner has written extensively on scripts. His book, Scripts People Live, suggests three basic unhealthy scripts: no love, no mind, and no joy. It is like a theatrical plot based on early parental messages (often called injunctions in TA). Choice “d,” abbreviated ANOVA, is a statistical technique used to deter- mine differences between two or more means. Hold your hors- es, we’ll get to statistics soon enough. Does domestic violence have a script? Well, I guess the answer is kind of, sort of. According to Dr. Leonore Walker, who researched wom- en in abusive relationships, there is a cycle of violence with three phases. First, there is a tension building phase where arguments erupt very easily. Many women have dubbed this as the “walking on eggshells phase.” Then there is the battering or acute incident phase where the actual fi ght or abuse sexual abuse, or worse yet homicide occurs. Finally, there is a makeup phase often referred to as the honeymoon phase characterized by romantic moonlight dinners, the “I’ll never do it again” lines, and the deliveries from the local fl ower shops. As time goes by the couple goes through the phases more rapidly and the honeymoon phase may not even exist.

Answer 140

**c. a life drama or plot.** The process of ferreting out the client’s script is called “script analysis.” Some popular life script categories include: the never scripts, or a person who never feels he or she will succeed; the always scripts, of individuals who will always remain a given way; after scripts, that result in a way a person believes he or she will behave after a certain event occurs; open ended scripts, in which the person has no direction or plan; until scripts, in which the client is not allowed to feel good until a certain accomplish- ment or event arrives; and desirable scripts/less desirable scripts. Steiner, mentioned in the previous answer, analyzes the script of TA pioneer Eric Berne in his book! Ulterior transac- tions (choice “a”) contain hidden transactions as two or more ego states are operating at the same time. For example, a man may say to a woman, “Would you like a ride in my new car?” She says. “Yes, I’d love to.” This seems like a healthy (i.e., parallel) trans- action from his Adult to her Adult ego state, and she responds in the same manner. He may, however, have a secret, covert, ulte- rior message if he is a game player. The ulterior message which goes from his Child to hers could be, “Wanna make out in my car?” Her ulterior answer—her Child to his Child—is, “Sure, I’d love to make out with you.”

Answer 141

**b. Gestalt therapy.** Berne is the Father of TA, while Frederick S. Perls created Ge- stalt therapy. In some books he is called Fritz Perls or “Fritz.” All the other concepts apply to Gestalt therapy. Perls saw the “top dog” as the critical parent portion of the personality which is very authoritarian and quick to use “shoulds” and “oughts.” The “underdog” was seen as weak, powerless, passive, and full of excuses. These splits in the personality would wage civil war within the individual. In Gestalt therapy, the empty chair tech- nique could be employed so the individual could work on these opposing feelings. That is to say, the person could be the top dog in one chair and the underdog in the other.

Answer 142

**d. Carkhuff and Gazda.**In an attempt to isolate the factors associated with positive ther- apeutic outcomes, counselor educators generally state that the counselor must possess distinct qualities. In the literature these are known as the “core dimensions.” According to research by Truax and Mitchell, an effective counselor is authentic and genuine, not phony; gives positive regard through acceptance; and has accurate empathic understanding. As mentioned earlier, the Carkhuff scale rates the counselor from 1 to 5. The higher the rating the better the counselor is facilitating client growth. Gazda suggested a “Global Scale for Rating Helper Responses.” On this scale a 1.0 response does not attend to the client’s needs. The counselor may discredit or even scold the client. In case I haven’t made myself clear, this is a response which is not help- ful in any sense. A 2.0 response, although better than a 1.0, is superfi cial and deals only partially with surface feelings. The 3.0 response does facilitate growth. Although a 3.0 response is lim- ited primarily to surface feelings, the counselor does not distort the content in his or her refl ections. A 4.0 is evident when the counselor goes beyond refl ection and deals with underlying feel- ings and meaning.

Answer 143

**a. Bandler and Grinder’s neurolinguistic programming.** This model (choice “a”), supposedly based somewhat on what Milton H. Erickson, Fritz Perls, and Virginia Satir really did in their sessions, makes some incredible claims, such as the ability to cure a longstanding phobia in less time than it takes to con- duct a typical counseling session! Perhaps the two most popular techniques used by NLP practitioners are “refraining” and “an- choring.” When using refraining the counselor helps the client to perceive a given situation in a new light so as to produce a new emotional reaction to it (e.g., a glass of water is not half empty; it is really half full). In anchoring, a desirable emotional state is evoked via an outside stimulus such as a touch or a sound or a specifi c bodily motion. This is similar to classical condition- ing or the concept of a posthypnotic suggestion (i.e., a sugges- tion which works after you leave the hypnotist’s offi ce). A client with a phobia of cats, for example, might squeeze his left arm when he came in contact with a cat, and this would bring out an emotion other than fear. If you are taking an exam which is slanted toward this model, then you must read Structure of Magic I and Structure of Magic II by Bandler and Grinder. This approach has been very popular with businesspeople (especially salespersons) and emphasizes the importance of eye movements in determining a person’s “representational system” for stor- ing information, such as hearing, seeing, or feeling. I have no doubt that the fellow who has made the most money from this approach, however, is not a licensed therapist but rather info- mercial king Anthony (Tony) Robbins, who expanded on NLP and whose various Personal Power tape series have outsold any other motivational product in history. Tony—a dynamic speaker by any standard—sports a high school education.

Answer 144

**a. playing the projection technique.** Choices “a,” “b,” and “c” are all techniques used frequently in gestalt therapy, but remember that you are searching for the best answer. Projection is an ego defense mechanism in which you see something in others that you cannot accept about your- self. Gestalt hits this head-on, and in “playing the projection” the counselor literally asks you to act like this person you dis- like. Choice “c” would work thusly: A client might say, “Don’t all people in a group feel scared during the initial session of group counseling?” The client is asked to turn the question into an “I statement,” in this case, “I feel scared during this initial session of group counseling.” In gestalt this is known as “taking respon- sibility for a feeling or situation.” Often, the gestalt counselor literally asks the client to say this. For example, “I feel scared during this initial session of group counseling and I take respon- sibility for being scared.”

Answer 145

Gestalt Therapy is concerned primarily with the here-and-now. When a client tries to avoid a feeling the counselor urges the **d. urge the client to stay with the feeling.** client to face it or “stay with the feeling” if you will. Perls be- lieved this is necessary for growth. Choice “a,” dream work, is an integral part of the gestalt approach to counseling. The client is told to recount the dream “as if it is happening in the pres- ent.” Everything—yes everything—in the dream is considered a projection of the self. So if the client is being chased by a mean old man in the dream, the client might be asked to “become the mean old man.” The gestalt model emphasizes experience rather than interpretation, which makes it especially attractive for group intervention.

Answer 146

**b. paradox as practiced by Frankl, Haley, or Erickson.** As opposed to the other three therapists (in choice “b”), Perls emphasized the exaggeration in regard to present moment ver- bal and nonverbal behavior in the here and now. A gestalt thera- pist might say, “What is your left hand doing?” (In gestalt, “what” questions are seen as more valuable than “why” questions.) After the client responds, the therapist might add, “Can you exagger- ate that movement in your left hand?” Choice “a” is an oper- ant behavior modifi cation term which suggests that a behavior is gradually accomplished by reinforcing “successive steps” until the target behavior is reached. This technique also is known as “shaping” or “shaping using successive approximations.”

Answer 147

**b. change the verbalization to an “I” statement.** A goal of gestalt is to eliminate “it talk” and replace it with “I statements.” The other choices all relate to career counseling. The DOT or Dictionary of Occupational Titles, was a popular career counseling book which listed over 20,000 job titles. As mentioned above, it has been replaced via O\*NET. The OOH stands for the Occupational Outlook Handbook published by the U.S. Department of Labor and revised every two years. The work attempts to depict projected job trends. It also delineates earnings, necessary training and education for a job, as well as working conditions and what workers in a given job actually do. The Strong (formerly the Strong Campbell Interest Inventory or SCII) is the most popular interest inventory, and it is based on the theory of John Holland.

Answer 148

**a. psychodrama.** Psychodrama incorporates role-playing into the treatment pro- cess. A client, for example, might act out an especially painful incident in his or her life. Psychodrama was invented by Jacob L. Moreno, who fi rst coined the term group therapy in 1931. Gestalt therapists emphasize experiments and exercises.

Answer 149

**c. retroflcection.** Retrofl ection is the act of doing to yourself what you really wish to do to someone else. The psychoanalysts often say that the per- son who wishes to kill him- or herself really wants to kill some- one else. True? Perhaps. Statistics now indicate that in cases of suicide, 4 out of every 100 begin with the person killing someone else!

Answer 150

**c. retroflcection.** Retrofl ection is the act of doing to yourself what you really wish to do to someone else. The psychoanalysts often say that the per- son who wishes to kill him- or herself really wants to kill some- one else. True? Perhaps. Statistics now indicate that in cases of suicide, 4 out of every 100 begin with the person killing someone else!

Answer 151

**b. a form, fi gure, or confi guration unifi ed as a whole.** Although there is no exact English translation, choice “b” rough- ly describes the nature of the concept. Gestalt also can imply that the integrated whole is greater than the sum of its parts.(b)

Answer 152

**d. fi ve layers of neurosis** Perls likened the process of therapy to that of peeling an onion. The person has a phony layer, a phobic layer (fear that others will reject his or her uniqueness), an impasse layer (the person feels struck), the implosive layer (willingness to expose the true self), and the explosive layer (person has relief due to authentic- ity.

Answer 153

**a. unfi nished business.** Here is a key term in Gestalt therapy. When an unexpressed feeling of resentment, rage, guilt, anxiety, or other emotion inter- feres with present situations and causes diffi culties, it is known as “unfi nished business.” Just in case it comes up on your exam, Perls borrowed the term gestalt from the system of psychology proposed by Max Wertheimer of Germany in the 1920s which emphasized that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. The original gestalt psychologists studied perceptual phenom- ena (e.g., fi gure/ground relationships). The three most common principles relating to gestalt psychology are fi rst, “insight learn- ing” (discussed earlier in this book) as discovered by Wolfgang Kohler. Second, Bluma Zeigarnik’s well-known “Zeigarnik ef- fect” which suggests that motivated people tend to experience tension due to unfi nished tasks, and thus they recall unfi nished activities better. Thus, if you sincerely care about the outcome of a task, you will have better recall of that task if it remains incom- plete, than if completed. (This certainly is a bit like the concept of “unfi nished business” in gestalt therapy.) Third, Wertheimer’s “phi-phenomenon,” wherein the illusion of movement can be achieved via two or more stimuli which are not moving; for ex- ample a neon sign that has a moving arrow.

Answer 154

**d. awareness in the here-and-now and dream work.** ## Footnote * *The gestalt mode does not believe that a** * *client can “think” one’s self out of unhappiness. The person must** * *experience awareness for growth.**

Answer 155

**c. top dog, underdog, and the empty chair technique.** The exam you are taking could refer to choice “c” as “games of dialogue.” In addition to the top dog/underdog split in the per- sonality, empty chair dialogue also could be used for other op- posing tendencies, such as feminine versus masculine attributes. Gestalt assumes that anxiety is often actually “stage fright.” By this the gestalt therapist assumes the client has internally re- hearsed a situation and is worried that his or her “performance” will not be up to snuff. This “rehearsal” is said to get in the way of spontaneity and healthy personal experimentation. The re- hearsal technique especially lends itself to group work as group members can share their rehearsals with one another, and thus awareness of stage fright (e.g., worrying about not saying or do- ing the right thing) and fear of not being accepted by others can be illuminated. And if you marked choice “b,” review the questions on reality therapy, as choice theory is associated with this brand of treatment. Glasser’s Choice Theory postulates that behavior is really an attempt to control our perceptions to satisfy our genetic needs—survival, love, and belonging, power, free- dom, and fun.

Answer 156

**c. often fails to emphasize cognitive concerns.** Quite the antithesis of REBT and related cognitive therapies, gestalt is considered a bit, well, anti-intellectual if you will. Perls once asserted that if you lose your mind you can come to your senses! In gestalt therapy the emphasis is on increasing psychological as well as bodily awareness. Another charge is that it is too confrontational if practiced in the manner Perls demonstrated. Today gestalt therapists are a bit gentler, softer, and less abrupt than Perls. Confrontation occurs when the therapist points out discrepancies or incongruencies between the client’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors. The “mak- ing the rounds” strategy mentioned in choice “d” alludes to a popular group exercise in which the client is instructed to say the same message to everyone in the group. And oh yes, the word affective in the question means emotional. Some experts have branded gestalt and existential psychotherapy as “affective” paradigms since they urge clients to purge emotions in order to feel better about themselves. Gestalt has traditionally been a popular modality for group work.

Answer 157

**b. the late 1960s.** In the 1950s, counseling—not testing—became the key guid- ance function. Moreover, the 1950s marked a golden age for de- velopmental psychology. In the late 1960s the fi eld was literally inundated with competing psychotherapies. In the 1970s bio- feedback, behavior modifi cation, and crisis hotlines fl ourished. And in the 1980s professionalism (e.g., licensing and improve- ment in professional organizations) was evident.

Answer 158

**b. slower.** Because gestalt therapists are generally rather confrontational, theorists assume that the client/counselor relationship will prog- ress at a slower rate. If you marked choice “d” I’d like to suggest that you read the answers more carefully. Answer “d,” is a syn- thesis of choice “a” and “b,” and choices “a” and “b” are contra- dictory.

Answer 159

* *a. nondirective counseling; client-centered therapy; the** * *person-centered approach.** A word to the wise: Expect to see any of these names in regard to questions on Rogers’s theory. The initial name, nondirective counseling, was intended to set the approach apart from the directive and analytic models which were popular during the 1940s. In 1951, the process took on its new name, client-cen- tered therapy, which emphasized Rogers’ theory of personality and, of course, the fact that the client was not viewed as a “sick patient.” In 1974, the approach took on its current name, per- son-centered, to emphasize the power of the person and Rog- ers’s growing interest in group behavior. Hint: Although I’ve just given you three key names for this approach, Rogers’s method could also be known as “self theory.” When his approach is used in career counseling the role of the self-concept in terms of career choice is illuminated.

Answer 160

**a. existential or humanistic** Some exams will call humanistic psychology “third force psychol- ogy” because it was a reaction to behaviorism and psychoanaly- sis, the two initial forces at the time. In regard to choices “b” and “c,” it can be pointed out that cognitive approaches are generally more directive and do not give the client/counselor relationship as much emphasis as the Rogerians.

Answer 161

* *a Refl ection is used a lot yet the counselor rarely gives ad-** * *vice.** A strict Rogerian would generally not give the client specifi c techniques for behavioral change or instruct the person “how to think.” Giving advice is one of the most debated issues in counseling. Some texts classify advice giving (along with preaching, lecturing, and excessive questioning) as a nonhelpful behavior. In fact, many experts insist that lecturing/preaching is merely a variation of advice giving and can abet a power struggle between the counselor and the client. Advice giving in the initial sessions can keep a client from working through his or her feelings. Never- theless, in crisis or emergency situations, advice giving is generally considered an appropriate intervention. Multi- cultural experts wisely point out that some groups (e.g., certain Asian cultures) view counseling as a last resort in which immediate direction is given to the client. In such cultures Rogerian counseling is clearly not the treatment of choice. When I was writing my book Favorite Counseling and Therapy Techniques I asked a famous person-centered ther- apist to contribute. He wrote me back and said, “I’m a Rogerian, I don’t do techniques.”

Answer 162

* *d. empathy, congruence, genuineness, and demonstrate un-** * *conditional positive regard to create a desirable “I-Thou** **relationship.”** Rogerians speak of “conditions for growth” and a therapeutic atmosphere which produces a “climate for growth.” The coun- selor helps produce the climate via genuineness (or congruence, which indicates the counselor can be real in the relationship), unconditional positive regard (nonjudgmental acceptance or nonpossessive warmth), and empathic understanding. Rogers has an optimistic view concerning the nature of men and women, believing that they have an inborn tendency toward self-actual- ization. Overall, the research does not support the notion that these therapeutic factors are necessarily related to positive ther- apeutic outcomes. Some studies indicate that the client’s traits have an even greater impact on the success of psychotherapy.

Answer 163

* *d. positive when he develops in a warm, accepting, trusting** * *environment.** Here is a wonderful little review regarding the manner in which the major modalities of counseling look at mankind. Expect to see several questions of this ilk on any major exam: * *Rogers (Person-Centered)—Individual is good and moves toward** * *growth and self-actualization.** * *Berne (Transactional Analysis)—Messages learned about self in** * *childhood determine whether person is good or bad, though in-** * *tervention can change this script.** **Freud (Psychoanalysis)—Deterministic; people are controlled by** * *biological instincts; are unsocialized, irrational; driven by uncon-** * *scious forces such as sex and aggression.** * *Ellis (Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy)—People have a cul-** * *tural/biological propensity to think in a disturbed manner but** **can be taught to use their capacity to react differently.** * *Perls (Gestalt)—People are not bad or good. People have the capac-** * *ity to govern life effectively as “whole.” People are part of their** **environment and must be viewed as such.** * *Glasser (Reality Therapy)—Individuals strive to meet basic physi-** * *ological needs and the need to be worthwhile to self and others.** * *Brain as control system tries to meet needs.** * *Adler (Individual Psychology)—Man is basically good; much of** * *behavior is determined via birth order.** * *Jung (Analytic Psychology)—Man strives for individuation or a** * *sense of self-fulfi llment.** * *Skinner (Behavior Modifi cation)—Humans are like other animals:** * *mechanistic and controlled via environmental stimuli and rein-** * *forcement contingencies; not good or bad; no self-determina-** * *tion or freedom.** * *Bandura (Neobehavioristic)—Person produces and is a product of** * *conditioning.** * *Frankl (Logotherapy)—Existential view is that humans are good,** * *rational, and retain freedom of choice.** * *Williamson (Trait-factor)—Through education and scientifi c data,** * *man can become himself. Humans are born with potential for** * *good or evil. Others are needed to help unleash positive poten-** * *tial. Man is mainly rational, not intuitive.**

Answer 164

* *b. treat all diagnostic categories of the DSM using the same** * *principles.** The person-centered model puts little stock in the formal pro- cess of diagnosis and psychological assessment. People are peo- ple, and when they are labeled they are debased to “patients.” Moreover, traditionally, strict adherents to this model do not ask a large number of questions (choice “c”). (Some years ago it was considered a cardinal sin if a graduate student serving a counsel- ing practicum asked a client a question while engaging in the practice of person-centered counseling. Today, the practice of asking clients questions is more common; nevertheless, open- ended questions are highly recommended whenever possible.) Choice “d,” contracting, is more popular with behavioristic counselors and “directive” methods rather than “nondirective” strategies.

Answer 165

**a. external behavior matches an internal response or state.** When the counselor has the ability to be “real” in the relation- ship, we say that he or she is genuine or congruent. Rogers insists that three key factors are needed for an effective help- ing climate. The counselor’s attitude must include genuineness (again, also called congruence), unconditional positive regard (also referred to as nonpossessive warmth), and empathic un- derstanding. Congruence is a condition where the counselor is very aware of his or her own feelings and accurately expresses this to the client. Of the three elements, Rogers suggested that congruence—which really implies that the counselor is genuine, authentic, and does not put on a professional front—is the most important of the three elements.

Answer 166

**b. three conditions are necessary.** congruence, unconditional positive regard, empathy

Answer 167

**d. a client who is not very verbal.** In choice “c,” the term phrenology refers to an early pseudosci- entifi c psychological doctrine which asserted that one’s person- ality could be determined by the shape and confi guration of the skull.

Answer 168

**d. b and c.** I have heard counselors humorously say that Rogerian counsel- ing is like a joke without a punch line! Many counselors now believe that some degree of directiveness is needed after the relationship is built; otherwise treatment merely goes in circles. Some books and exams refer to the process after the relationship is built as the “action phase” of counseling. J. O. Prochaska is very critical of the research which supposedly indicates the ef- fectiveness of the Rogerian model, as some of the studies lacked a control group, failed to take the placebo effect into account, did not use the best statistical technique, or relied on self-re- ports of the client.

Answer 169

**d. generally do not adhere to one single theory.** Now hear this! I fully expect that you will see several questions on your exam related to consultation. Many counselors tell me they have never studied this topic. Read this answer over sev- eral times. Choice “c” is not the best answer inasmuch as no integrated theory of consultation exists at this time. Consultation can target organizational concerns or service delivery. Several major consultation models exist. First is Caplan’s psychodynamic mental health consultation in which the consultant does not see the client directly but advises the consultee (i.e., the individual in the organization who is receiving the consultant’s services). This model is interesting because it recommends that the con- sultant—not the counselor/consultee—be ethically and legally responsible for the client’s welfare and treatment. Second is the “behavioral consultation’’ or “social learning theory model” asso- ciated with Bandura, in which the consultant designs behavioral change programs for the consultee to implement. Third is the process consultation model by Edgar Schein, which is said to be analogous to the “doctor–patient” model. The consultant is paid to diagnose the problem (i.e., the consultee is not certain what it is) and prescribe a solution. The focus is on the agency or or- ganization, not the individual client. With process consultation, the focus is not—I repeat—is not on the content of the prob- lem, but rather the process used to solve the problems. Schein also mentions the purchase of expertise model in which the con- sultee says: “Here’s the problem; you fi x it.” This is similar to the doctor–patient model except that the consultee knows what is wrong. Fourth is triadic consultation in which the consultant works with a mediator to provide services to a client.

Answer 170

**b. work/organizational**

Answer 171

**a. verbal tracking.** ## Footnote Here is a nice little memory device. The word attending is simi- lar to the word attention. Attending behavior occurs when you give your clients your complete attention. Helpful “nonverbal” behavior would include leaning forward slightly, eye contact, and appropriate facial expression, such as smiling. Nonhelpful nonverbals would be frowning, yawning, sitting far away from the client, repeatedly closing your eyes, shaking a fi nger at the client, acting as if you are in a hurry, or talking extremely fast or slow. Some exams may speak of task-facilitative behavior versus abstractive behavior in regard to the process of attending. When the counselor’s thoughts are in relation to the client, this is said to be task-facilitative. When the counselor is thinking about his or her own concerns (e.g., how much money he or she is making that day or where to go for lunch), then it is seen as abstractive behavior.

Answer 172

**b. expertise, attractiveness, and trustworthiness.** Some exams will call social power “social infl uence.” My memo- ry technique here is what I call the “EAT” formula; the “E” is for expertness, the “A” for attractiveness, and the “T” for trustwor- thiness. The three factors fi rst made an impact on the counseling profession in 1968 when Stanley Strong wrote a landmark article which suggested that counselors perceived as expert, attractive, and trustworthy would not be discredited by the client. Expert- ness here refers to the manner in which the client perceives the counselor rather than the way the counselor perceives himself or herself. A counselor’s self-perception is technically known as “competence.” E. Fuller Torrey, author of The Death of Psy- chiatry, suggested that a wall full of degrees and an impressive offi ce can help to insure that the counselor will be perceived as an expert. Thus, a counselor who is seen as an expert may not actually be competent. Attractiveness implies that positive feelings and thoughts regarding the counselor are helpful. One hypothesis states that if the client and counselor have had similar experiences, the client will view the counselor as attractive. Cli- ents who say, “I like my counselor,” are demonstrating that the counselor has been perceived as attractive. The chemical depen- dency model (CD), in which a recovering addict helps a practic- ing addict, is based on this principle. In regard to trust, it is felt that a violation of confi dentiality will nearly always eliminate this factor.

Answer 173

**d. competence, power, and intimacy.** Competence, power, and intimacy are all factors that impact the counselor’s “social infl uence.” Competence refl ects a counselor’s feelings regarding his or her adequacy. A counselor who feels in- competent could directly or indirectly (e.g., tone of voice or body posture) communicate this to the client. In counseling, power is seen as a positive trait used to enhance the client’s growth. Counselors struggling with their own feelings in regard to a lack of power may become rigid, coercive, or even belligerent toward the client. Others may become overly nondirective. A counselor who has personal issues revolving around intimacy also could be extremely nondirective or afraid to confront clients for fear of rejection. Clearly, such a counselor stays at arm’s length from clients and could personally benefi t from treatment.

Answer 174

**d. competence, power, and intimacy.** Competence, power, and intimacy are all factors that impact the counselor’s “social infl uence.” Competence refl ects a counselor’s feelings regarding his or her adequacy. A counselor who feels in- competent could directly or indirectly (e.g., tone of voice or body posture) communicate this to the client. In counseling, power is seen as a positive trait used to enhance the client’s growth. Counselors struggling with their own feelings in regard to a lack of power may become rigid, coercive, or even belligerent toward the client. Others may become overly nondirective. A counselor who has personal issues revolving around intimacy also could be extremely nondirective or afraid to confront clients for fear of rejection. Clearly, such a counselor stays at arm’s length from clients and could personally benefi t from treatment.

Answer 175

**d. a and b.**

Answer 176

**c. basic, subtractive, and additive.** In basic empathy the counselor’s response is on the same level as the client’s. In the case of subtractive empathy, the coun- selor s behavior does not completely convey an understanding of what has been communicated. Additive empathy is most desir- able since it adds to the client’s understanding and awareness.

Answer 177

**a. Truax; Carkhuff** Robert Carkhuff has been quoted time and time again for his statement that, “all helping is for better or worse.” Or as he says, “no helpee is left unchanged by any helping interaction.”

Answer 178

**c. empathy, positive regard (or respect), and genuineness.** Choice “b” (remember?) is the social infl uence core. The pur- pose of this question is to make certain you are able to distin- guish between the social infl uence core and the human relations core .