Research Flashcards
What is the Scientific Method?
Overall approach of rigorously collecting and analyzing data to build and refine scientific theory and knowledge.
What is the first step in the Scientific Method?
The first step is perceiving the question, which involves determining what is known or unknown about a phenomenon, derived from the goal of description.
What does forming a hypothesis involve?
Forming a hypothesis involves identifying key measurable variables and making a predictive assertion to test, addressing the question: “Why is this happening?”
How is a hypothesis tested?
Testing the hypothesis involves selecting a precise research method, which can be quantitative (selecting participants, collecting data, and statistical analysis) or qualitative (describing phenomena).
What is the goal of qualitative approaches in hypothesis testing?
The goal of qualitative approaches is to describe phenomena, and some may include prescriptive or objectivist hypotheses rather than purely constructivist approaches.
What should be done after testing the hypothesis?
After testing, results should be clearly presented, and conclusions should be drawn about whether the findings support the hypothesis and what the implications are for applying the new knowledge.
What is Empirical Reasoning?
Empirical Reasoning aims to explain, predict, or control what happens by using systematic approaches based on observable and verifiable data.
What do Scientific Methods rely on?
Scientific Methods depend on empirical reasoning and empirical data.
How does Empirical Reasoning ensure credibility?
Empirical Reasoning combines various verifiable factors that are open to scrutiny by others, typically through peer review processes.
What components are involved in Empirical Reasoning?
It involves careful logic, formally organized observation (methodology), and well-defined measurements.
How does empirical reasoning contrast with anecdotal evidence?
Empirical reasoning is based on rigorous and formalized observation, while anecdotal evidence is based on less formalized observation, such as clinical or classroom observations.
What aspects of the study’s nature does the IRB evaluate?
The IRB evaluates the study’s purpose, methods, any deceptions, potential harms to participants, and justifications/efforts to minimize those harms.
What is the purpose of the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?
The IRB ensures ethical practices in research by reviewing various aspects of a study.
What does the IRB review regarding the investigator(s)?
The IRB reviews the qualifications, defined roles, experience, and research assistants involved in the study, ensuring there is always a primary (Lead) investigator.
What considerations does the IRB have regarding research participants?
The IRB reviews recruitment processes, how the study will be explained to participants, how informed consent will be obtained, and required demographics, psychographics, and other qualifications.
What materials does the IRB review?
The IRB reviews the equipment used, standardized psychological tests, safety checks protocols, and test results protocols with participants.
How does the IRB ensure confidentiality in research?
The IRB examines what procedures are in place to protect the confidentiality of the data collected during the study.
What does the IRB assess regarding debriefing plans?
The IRB assesses particular protocols and timing for debriefing participants after the study.
What is the Belmont Report?
The Belmont Report, published in 1974, outlines ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects in research.
What is the purpose of research in the context of evidence?
Research collects, examines, and interprets evidence to draw conclusions and inform practices.
How does the level of evidence affect research findings?
The level of evidence generally determines the degree of generalizability of the research findings.
What type of study is considered the highest level of evidence?
Random Control Trial (RCT)
What type of study represents the lowest level of evidence?
Case Study
What is a Case Study?
Carefully drawn biography based on clinical interviews, observations, and psychological tests. Investigates an emergent protocol in a singular case.
What is a Single-case experimental design?
A Single-case experimental design is a research method where the subject or participant serves as their own control.
Epidemiological studies
Track rates of occurrence of specific disorders among different populations and groups
Incidence
Number of new cases of a disorder that occurs within a specific period of time
Prevalence
The overall number of cases of a disorder in a population within a specific period of time
Proband
The case first diagnosed with a given disorder
Genotype
The set of traits specified by an individual’s genetic code
Phenotype
An individual’s actual, or expressed, traits
Meta-analysis
Analyzes findings across multiple studies regarding specific phenomena
Longitudinal Research
A type of correlational study in which individuals are periodically tested or evaluated over long periods of time, perhaps for decades
Critical Thinking is the adoption of
- a questioning attitude and
- careful scrutiny of claims and arguments in the light of evidence
Key Features of Critical Thinking
- Maintain a skeptical attitude.
- Consider the definitions of terms.
- Weigh the assumptions or premises on which arguments are based.
- Bear in mind that correlation is not causation.
- Consider the kinds of evidence on which conclusions are based.
- Do not oversimplify.
- Do not overgeneralize.
Format Research Reporting
- Introduction
-states the reason for the investigation
-identifies a main problem that the research can shed light upon - Review of the literature; introduce hypothesis
-Often included in intro section
-Some research articles are exclusively review of literature - Methodology
-Data collection methods (detailed observation protocols, measurements)
-Analysis methods (statistical, other) - Results
- Discussion
- Conclusions and Recommendations
What is the purpose of Descriptive Research?
Descriptive Research maps out a situation or set of events, describing what is happening behaviorally. It is often the first step in developing a research program.
Why is Descriptive Research rarely sufficient for understanding a phenomenon?
typically provides only a foundational understanding; it does not explain why or how the phenomena occur, which often requires further research.
What does Relational Research (correlation study) focus on?
measures two or more variables or conditions and estimates their degree of relationship using a correlation statistic.
Can Relational Research determine cause-and-effect relationships?
No, Relational Research does not determine cause-and-effect relationships; it only identifies the strength and direction of relationships between variables.
What is Experimental Research?
Experimental Research investigates causal relationships by manipulating independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables.
What is a Theoretical variable?
It is how a variable is defined within a theory, explaining how the concept of the variable is constructed based on sufficient and accurate empirical evidence supporting its place in the theory.
What distinguishes Experimental Research from Descriptive and Relational Research?
Experimental Research involves manipulation of variables to determine causality, while Descriptive Research focuses on observation and Relational Research examines associations without establishing cause and effect.
What is an Operational variable?
It identifies a variable based on the empirical conditions used to measure or manipulate it in a study, such as using stomach contractions to measure hunger or a survey score to measure depression.
How is an Independent Variable represented and defined in research?
An Independent Variable, usually symbolized as X and plotted on the horizontal axis, is the factor or condition that is manipulated to test its impact on the dependent variable.
What is a Dependent Variable in research?
A Dependent Variable, usually symbolized as Y and plotted on the vertical axis, is the outcome or effect observed in a study, which depends on the independent variable being tested.
Can you give an example of how a variable might be operationalized in a study?
Yes, hunger might be operationalized as the number or strength of stomach contractions, and depression might be operationalized as a score on a depression survey.
What is Internal Validity in research?
It is the degree to which changes in the dependent variables can be causally attributed to the manipulation of the independent variables.
What does Construct Validity refer to?
It is the degree to which treatment effects can be explained by the theoretical constructs that the independent variables represent.
What is External Validity?
It is the degree to which the results of an experiment can be generalized to other settings, conditions, or populations.
What is Reliability in the context of research studies?
It refers to the consistency of results over multiple trials or periods of time.
What is the purpose of random sampling in an RCT?
It ensures that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the study, reducing bias.
Why are controls important in an RCT?
Controls are built into the study design to limit researcher bias and other confounding variables, ensuring that outcomes are attributed only to the variables being tested.
What are confounds in the context of an RCT?
Factors that have the potential to change the relationship between the I.V (treatment) and D.V (outcome).
Not wanted by scientists since it can derail the study.
What does blind mean in experimental research?
Being unaware of whether a participant has received a particular experimental treatment or a placebo control to prevent bias.
What is a placebo?
An inert medication or bogus treatment used to control for expectancy effects in an experiment.
What is single-blind in a study?
When participants are randomly assigned but kept unaware of which study condition or treatment group they are in.
What is double-blind in a study?
Both the research facilitators and participants are kept uninformed about which participants are in which test condition to minimize observer bias.
Why is an RCT (Random Control Trial) considered the gold standard in psychological research?
It allows scientists to draw causal conclusions about the effects of a certain experimental condition or treatment method.
What does it mean when factors are statistically significantly related in a study?
It indicates a correlation, but it does not necessarily imply that one factor causes the other.
Why is the phrase “correlation does not indicate causation” important in psychological research?
It emphasizes that just because two factors are related, it doesn’t mean one causes the other. Causality requires more rigorous testing, like an RCT.
What does Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (r) measure?
The strength and direction of the relationship between two factors.
What is a perfect positive correlation in terms of Pearson’s r?
When one factor increases in exact direct proportion to the increase of another factor, r = 1.00.
What is a perfect negative correlation in terms of Pearson’s r?
When one factor decreases to the exact opposite extent that another factor increases, r = -1.00.
What does an r value close to zero indicate?
A weaker correlation between the two factors.
What is the range of values for Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient?
Between -1.00 and 1.00
