Learning Flashcards
Learned Behavior
Involve Change and Experience
Ivan Pavlov
Who: Russian physiologist
Contribution: Discovered classical conditioning through digestion studies in dogs.
Associative Learning
Organism makes connection b/w stimuli/event that happen in the environment
Unlearned Behaviors
Behaviors that do not have to be learned; organisms are born with them.
Function: Help organisms adapt to their environment.
Innate Behavior: Reflex
Automatic motor or neural reactions to specific stimuli (e.g., knee jerk, pupil contraction in bright light, startle reflex, righting reflex, rooting).
Simpler than instincts.
Innate Behavior: Instincts
Complex innate behaviors triggered by a broader range of events.
Involve the whole organism and higher brain centers (e.g., mating, migration, aging, change of seasons).
Classical Conditioning
Learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original natural stimulus.
Key Concept: A different stimulus can be trained to trigger the same reflex.
Acquisition
The process of acquiring learning through repeated pairing of the neutral stimulus (NS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
Key Points:
-NS must precede UCS.
-NS and UCS must be closely timed (ideally within seconds).
-Multiple pairings are needed for conditioning.
-NS/CS should stand out from competing stimuli (e.g., metronome, clicker).
Stimulus Generalization
Response to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS).
Example:
Dentist drill → anxiety
Coffee grinder → some anxiety
Stimulus Discrimination
Tendency to stop responding to a similar stimulus that is not paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
Example:
Dogs learn to differentiate between two ticking sounds when only one is paired with food.
Extinction
The disappearance or weakening of a learned response.
In Classical Conditioning: Occurs when the unconditioned stimulus (US) is removed or absent (e.g., no food after the bell).
In Operant Conditioning: Happens with the removal of a reinforcer.
Spontaneous Recovery
Reappearance of a learned response after extinction.
Characteristics: Typically weaker than the original conditioned response (CR).
Factors Influencing Recovery: Depends on cue salience and the individual’s state.
Higher-Order Conditioning
A strong conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with a new neutral stimulus.
Example: Ticking (CS) paired with finger snapping (neutral stimulus).
Outcome: The new neutral stimulus becomes a second conditioned stimulus.
Cue Similarity
Definition: Cue similarity refers to how similar cues can elicit a conditioned response.
Importance: Similar cues can influence the strength and likelihood of a conditioned response.
Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)
An emotional response that is classically conditioned to occur in response to learned stimuli.
Examples:
Fear of dogs
Emotional reaction upon seeing an attractive person
Note: Some CERs can lead to phobias, which are irrational fear responses.
Vicarious Emotional Conditioning
Classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion occurs by observing another person’s reaction.
Example: Learning a friend’s fear response to bees.
Operant Implications:
-If the observed behavior is rewarded, modeling of that behavior is more likely.
-A perception of the moral rightness of the behavior is likely to form.
Taste Aversion
A learned aversion to a specific taste that occurs after one negative experience (e.g., nausea).
Concept: Biological Preparedness
Why Classical Conditioning Works - “Now”
Cognitive Perspective
Definition: Modern theory suggesting that the conditioned stimulus (CS) provides information or an expectancy about the occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus (US).
Why Classical Conditioning Works - “Then”
Stimulus Substitution
Definition: The original theory by Pavlov that the conditioned stimulus (CS) acts as a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus (US) after being paired closely together.
B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
Background: Skinner was a behaviorist focused on observable, measurable behavior.
Term Origin: Coined the term “operant conditioning.”
Definition: Operant refers to any voluntary behavior.
Principle: Learning is influenced by the consequences that follow a response.
Operant Conditioning
Learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses.
Key Point: Involves active choice and decision-making based on rewards or punishments.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Behaviors followed by pleasurable consequences are likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Key Point: This principle underlies the foundation of operant conditioning.
Primary Reinforcer
A reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by fulfilling a basic biological need (e.g., hunger, thirst, touch).
Reinforcement
Any event or stimulus that, when following a response, increases the likelihood that the response will occur again.
Positive Reinforcement
The reinforcement of a response by adding or experiencing a pleasurable stimulus.
Secondary Reinforcer
A reinforcer that gains its reinforcing properties after being paired with a primary reinforcer (e.g., praise, tokens, gold stars).
Negative Reinforcement
The reinforcement of a response by removing, escaping from, or avoiding an unpleasant stimulus.
Example: Taking aspirin for a headache is negatively reinforced by the removal of the headache.
Fixed Interval Schedule
A set (same) interval of time must pass before reinforcement becomes possible.
Partial Reinforcement Effect
A response is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses.
Note: This schedule tends to be very resistant to extinction.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcement of each and every correct response.
Variable Interval Schedule
The time interval before reinforcement becomes possible varies for each trial or event.
Fixed Ratio Schedule
The number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same.
Punishment by Application (Adding + Positive)
Punishment by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant (aversive) stimulus.
Examples: Scolding, spanking, writing lines repeatedly.
Variable Ratio Schedule
The number of responses required for reinforcement varies for each trial or event.
Problems with Punishment
Severe Punishment Consequences:
-May cause avoidance of the punisher instead of the behavior being punished.
-May encourage lying to avoid punishment.
-Creates fear and anxiety.
How to Make Punishment More Effective
- Punishment should immediately follow the behavior it is meant to punish.
- Punishment should be consistent.
- Punishment of the wrong behavior should be paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement of the right behavior.
Punishment
Any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again.
Shaping
Reinforcement of simple steps leading to a desired complex behavior.
Example: Teaching a dog to jump through a hoop.
Punishment by Removal (Negative)
Punishment by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus.
Examples: Taking away a toy or phone; losing a privilege.
Successive Approximation
Small steps, one after another, that lead to a particular goal behavior.
Example: Reinforcing the dog for walking through the hoop, then raising the hoop gradually until the dog jumps through at the desired height.
Extinction in Operant Conditioning
Occurs when a behavior (response) is not reinforced.
Example: Ignoring a child’s temper tantrum leads to the extinction of the tantrum behavior.
Spontaneous Recovery
Reoccurrence of a once-extinguished response after a period of absence.
Example: A child may throw a tantrum again after it has been extinguished, even if reinforcement is not given.
Behavior Modification
Use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior.
Token Economy
System where desired behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges or rewards.
Time-Out
Mild punishment by removal; a misbehaving individual is placed away from others to reduce attention-seeking behavior.
Instinctive Drift
Tendency for an animal’s behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns despite conditioning.
Key Point: Some behaviors are innate and differ between species.
Genetically Determined Instincts
Certain responses are influenced by an animal’s genetic makeup, making them difficult or impossible to condition.
Example: Species-specific behaviors that cannot be trained through reinforcement or punishment.
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
Modern term for behavior modification using shaping techniques to mold desired behaviors or responses.
Biofeedback
Feedback about biological conditions used to bring involuntary responses under voluntary control (e.g., blood pressure, relaxation response).
Neurofeedback
A form of biofeedback that uses devices (like EEG or fMRI) to provide feedback about brain activity to modify behavior.
Cognitive Learning Theory
Focuses on the role of mental processes in understanding learning, emphasizing that cognition (mental events) cannot be ignored.
Edward Tolman
Early cognitive scientist known for his experiments on latent learning with rats.
Tolman’s Maze Experiment - Group 1
Rewarded each time at the end of the maze.
Outcome: Learned the maze quickly.
Tolman’s Maze Experiment - Group 2
In the maze every day; rewarded only on the 10th day.
Outcome: Demonstrated learning almost immediately after receiving the reward.
Tolman’s Maze Experiment - Group 3
Never rewarded.
Outcome: Did not learn the maze well.
Latent Learning
Learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful.
Insight
Sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, leading to a quick solution.
“Aha” Moment- Insight
The moment of realization or understanding that occurs suddenly during problem-solving.
Insight vs. Trial-and-Error Learning
Insight allows for quick solutions and cannot be gained through trial-and-error learning alone.
Learned Helplessness
Tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation due to a history of repeated failures.
Learned Helplessness and Depression
Learned helplessness can often present with symptoms of depression.
Expectancies in Learned Helplessness
Expectancies are critical to understanding learned helplessness and its resolution.
Positive Psychology
A new approach to mental health focusing on adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human experience rather than solely on mental disorders.
Observational Learning
Learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior.
Learning/Performance Distinction
Learning can occur without the actual performance of the learned behavior.
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
An experiment demonstrating observational learning where children watched an adult model behave aggressively toward a Bobo doll, influencing the children’s own behavior.
Attention
The learner must first pay attention to the model to learn through observation.
Memory/Retention
The learner must retain the memory of the observed behavior, such as remembering steps in a cooking process.
Imitation
The learner must be capable of reproducing or imitating the actions of the model.
Motivation
The learner must have the desire to perform the action, which can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
General Learning Model - Short-Term Process
A framework that describes how learning occurs through various stages, particularly focusing on immediate cognitive activities.
Input Stage
Information is received through sensory channels (sight, sound, etc.) and enters sensory memory.
Encoding Stage
Information is processed and transformed into a format suitable for storage in short-term memory (STM).
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Holds a limited amount of information (typically 7±2 items) for a brief period (about 20-30 seconds) before it is forgotten or moved to long-term memory.
Retrieval Stage
Information in short-term memory can be retrieved for use in tasks or decision-making processes. Retrieval can be influenced by cues and context.
Consolidation Stage
Information may be reinforced through rehearsal or meaningful connections, allowing it to be transferred to long-term memory.
General Learning Model - Long-Term Process
A framework that describes how information is stored, organized, and retrieved over extended periods.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
A system that stores vast amounts of information for extended periods, potentially indefinitely. It has a virtually unlimited capacity.
Encoding for Long-Term Memory
Information is transformed from short-term memory into long-term memory through processes such as elaborative rehearsal (linking new information to existing knowledge) and meaningful encoding.
Types of Long-Term Memory
Explicit Memory: Involves conscious recollection of information, such as facts (semantic memory) and events (episodic memory).
Implicit Memory: Involves unconscious memory of skills and tasks (procedural memory) that can be performed without conscious awareness.
Storage in Long-Term Memory
Information is organized in a structured way, often through schemas (mental frameworks) that help categorize and retrieve information efficiently.
Retrieval from Long-Term Memory
The process of recalling stored information. It can be influenced by retrieval cues, context, and the organization of memories.
Forgetting in Long-Term Memory
Long-term memories may fade over time due to interference (other memories disrupting recall) or decay (the fading of memory traces).
Memory Consolidation
The process through which memories become stable and integrated into existing knowledge structures, often occurring during sleep.
