Research

Question 1

Define empiricism. Define dogmatism.

Answer 1

Empiricism: Accurate knowledge can be gained through observation
Dogmatism: Unwaveringly clinging to one’s beliefs, (especially) in the face of contradictory evidence

Question 2

What is the scientific method?

Answer 2

Ideas (theories/hypothesis) are tested in real world (as empirical observations) and those observations lead to more ideas that are tested in real world and so on.

Question 3

What are facts?

Answer 3

Observable realities

Question 4

What is deductive reasoning? Duck example is included.

Answer 4

Ideas tested against empirical world, begins with generalization/hypothesis that is used to reach logical conclusions.
Example: All living things require energy to survive (hypothesis), Ducks are living. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion). Researchers might design study to test if all living things require energy to survive, then ducks will be found to require energy.

Question 5

What is inductive reasoning? Apple/Orange example is included.

Answer 5

Empirical observations lead to new ideas, key note: conclusions drawn may or may not be correct regardless of if observations they are based on are true or not.
Example: You notice apples and oranges grow on trees (empirical observation). Therefore, you assume that all fruit must grow on trees (generalization). This is incorrect.

Question 6

What is a theory?

Answer 6

A well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for a phenomena, usually multiple hypotheses to study specific aspects of a theory

Question 7

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 7

A testable prediction about how the world will behave if theory is correct. Theories are redefined as results of hypotheses come in. Also must be falsifiable (to be confident in the information).

Question 8

A) What is a clinical/case study?
B) What is a positive?
C) What is a negative)

Answer 8

A) Scientists focus on one person or few individuals
B) Can gain tremendous insight into these cases
C) Since these individuals usually have unique characteristics, cannot generalize observations to large segments of society/average person

Question 9

A) What is naturalistic observation? and two facts about it?

Answer 9

Observing behaviour in its natural setting
Observer must remain inconspicuous, can be used for animals as well (e.g. Jane Goodall observed chimpanzees)

Question 10

What are 3 cons of naturalistic observation?

Answer 10

1) Difficult to set up and control, no control of when (or if) you have behaviour to observe
2) Requires significant time, money, and luck
3) Observer bias

Question 11

What is observer bias? How can it be mitigated?

Answer 11

Researcher may unconsciously skew observations to fit research goals/expectations
Can be solved by having clear criteria established for classification of behaviours and compare observations of same event by multiple observers

Question 12

What is structured observation (subcategory of naturalistic observation)?
Describe example of Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth?

Answer 12

People observed in set, specific tasks
Used to evaluate attachment styles between infant and caregiver. Involves room with toys with stranger entering, caregiver leaving

Question 13

A) What is a survey?
B) What are two pros?
C) What are two cons?

Answer 13

A) List of questions to be answered by participants, researchers study sample (subset of individuals selected from population) and seek to generalize findings
B) 1) allow larger samples, more diverse sample, easier to generalize to larger population
2) More affordable
C) 1) Not very in-depth, no follow-up questions
2) Inaccurate responses: lie, misremember, answer to make themselves look good

Question 14

A) What is archival research?
B) What is a pro?
C) What is a con?

Answer 14

A) Use existing records or data sets to look for patterns or relationships
B) Researcher never directly interacts with participants, takes little time and money
C) No control over what/quality of information or consistency

Question 15

A) What is longitudinal research? What is it often used to study?
B) What are two cons?
Example is included.

Answer 15

A) Data gathering administered repeatedly over extended period of time, often used to study various diseases to understand risk factors, uses correlation
B) Many researchers are unable to commit time, money, resources necessary
Substantial amount of participants drop out over time
Example: survey group of individual’s dietary habits at age 20, then age 30, then age 30

Question 16

A) What is cross-sectional research?
Example given.
B) What is a con?
Example given.

Answer 16

A) Compares multiple segments of population at same time.
Example: compare group of 20-year-olds to group of 30-year-olds to group of 40-year-olds
B) Limited by differences that may not have to do with age but social/cultural differences in generations
Example: opinions on same-sex marriage between younger and older people

Question 17

What is correlational research?

Answer 17

Correlation is relationship between two or more variables that does not imply cause-effect, this research measures correlation by statistic called correlation coefficient

Question 18

How is correlation coefficient represented? How does it relate to correlation?

Answer 18

Number from -1 to +1 that indicates strength and direction of relationship between variable, represented by ‘r.’
Closer number is to 1 (neg or pos) stronger relationship is, closer to 0 weaker/less predictable is
If variables are not related at all, correlation coefficient is 0

Question 19

What is positive and negative correlation?

Answer 19

Positive correlation: variables move in same direction
Negative correlation: variables move in opposite directions (decrease associated with increase)

Question 20

What is experimentation?
How is experimental research used to get around confounds?
Example given.

Answer 20

Manipulating one variable and observing its effects on another variable.
Rule out plausible 3rd variables by manipulating variable you are interested in.
Example: Violence in video games, does playing violent video games equal violent behaviour in real life, or does it both have to do with parent supervision? In experiment, 30 participants play violent game, 50 do not, then measure violent behaviour

Question 21

Define independent variable.
Define dependent variable.

Answer 21

Independent variable: variable that you manipulate (predictor variable) (e.g. violent/calm video game)
Dependent variable: variable we are interested in (outcome variable) (e.g. behaviour)

Question 22

What is operational definition?

Answer 22

How you choose to measure the dependent variable, can influence conclusions

Question 23

What is an experimental group?
What is a control group?
How do you make sure groups are evenly distributed?

Answer 23

Experimental group: receives intervention
Control group: does not receive intervention
Random assignment of participants so each participant has equal opportunity to be assigned to either group

Question 24

A) What is a quasi-experimental design?
B) What is a potential con?
Example given.

Answer 24

A) When we have two naturally occurring groups that we perform experiments on
B) Useful but limits claims we can make about causality
Example: seeing difference between male and female in punctuality (did not choose who is male or female)

Question 25

A) What is single blind?
B) What is double blind?
C) Which is Rosenthal and Fode (1965), rat experiment an example of?

Answer 25

A) Participants are blind (unaware) of hypothesis of experiment and condition they are in
B) Both participant and researcher are unaware of which condition any given participant is in until data collection has stopped, this protects against researcher expectations
C) Double blind

Question 26

What did Sir Francis Galton study?

Answer 26

First set of studies into intelligence, measured intelligence using reaction time (e.g. how quickly someone could classify a sound)

Question 27

What does validity ask?
What does ecological validity ask?

Answer 27

Does your instrument measure what we think or are hoping to investigate?
Does the behaviour I am observing reflect the behaviour I would reflect in real life?

Question 28

What does reliability ask?

Answer 28

Does our test return consistent results over time?

Question 29

What are 5 components of research ethics?

Answer 29

No harm should come to participants
Respect for human dignity/safety
Informed consent
Confidential
Animal studies must minimize pain/distress

Question 30

What is an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

Answer 30

Any research institutions that receives federal support for research with humans must have access to an IRB (committee of individuals made of members of institutions admin, scientists, and community members).
They must review proposals and approve experiments

Question 31

What are two experiment requirements to be approved?

Answer 31

Each participant must sign informed consent form
In cases where deception is involved, participants must receive a full debriefing upon conclusion of the study

Question 32

Who must review and approve research involving animal subjects?

Answer 32

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)