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Psychology 101 - Midterm > Biopsychology > Flashcards

Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

A) What is evolutionary psychology?
B) What do they study?

A

A) Focuses on evolution of universal patterns of cognition and behaviour. Variations make individuals more/less successful in reproducing and passing on those genes.
B) Studies phenomena that may have evolved as adaptations: fear response, food preferences, mate selection, cooperative behaviours

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2
Q

A) What do behavioural geneticists study?
B) What do they often use to study?

A

A) Study how individual differences arrive (presently) through interaction of genes and environments
B) Often employ twin studies (compare rates given behavioural trait is shared among twins) and adoption studies (compare rates among biologically related relatives and adopted relatives)

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3
Q

What is genetic variation?

A

Genetic difference between individuals (is what contribute to species adaption of environment)

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4
Q

How many chromosome pairs are there?

A

23

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5
Q

Explain how chromosomes relate to chromatin relate to DNA relate to genes relate to alleles

A

Chromosomes are made of chromatin strands, which contain wrapped DNA, which contain genes, which contain alleles (variation of genes)

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6
Q

What is DNA?

A

genetic material, helix shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs

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7
Q

What are genes?

A

Sequences of DNA make up genes that partially control number of visible traits, single gene may have multiple alleles

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8
Q

A) What is a phenotype?
B) What is a genotype?

A

A) Observable physical characteristics of individual, combination of genetic and environment, can change over time
B) Genetic makeup of individual based on inherited DNA, actual genetic code

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9
Q

What does homozygous mean?
What does heterozygous mean?

A

Homozygous: two copies of the same allele (bb)
Heterozygous: combination of alleles for given gene (Bb)

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10
Q

Define polygenic

A

Controlled by more than one gene (eg. height, skin colour, weight)
-Few characteristics are controlled by single gene

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11
Q

What are gene mutations?

A

Sudden, permanent change in gene

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12
Q

Define range of reaction. Example given.

A

Asserts our genes set boundaries in which we can operate, environment interacts with genes to determine what degree they are expressed (some argue and say genes do not set a limit on potential)
Example: identical twins developing differently.

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13
Q

Define genetic-environmental correlation. Example given.

A

Genes influence our environment, and environment influences expression of our genes: genes and environment influence each other/
Example: child of NBA player exposed to basketball from early age, allowing child to realize full genetic, athletic potential. Parents’ genes which child shares influence child’s environment and that environment is suited to support child’s genetic potential

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14
Q

What do epigenetics study? Example given.

A

Environmental stressors and behaviours can “turn on” dominant genes, studies how same genotype can lead to different phenotypes
Example: pregnant person smoking changes their DNA (behavioural effects) and their unborn child’s DNA (environmental effects)

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15
Q

What are the two basic cell types?

A

Glial cells (glia) and neurons

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16
Q

6 facts about glia?

A

Outnumber neurons 10:1, play supportive role, help neurons line closely for communication, provide insulation, transport nutrients and waste products, mediate immune responses

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17
Q

What are neurons?

A

Interconnected information processors

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18
Q

What are 8 parts of a neuron?

A

Semipermeable membrane, nucleus, dendrites, terminal buttons, axon, myelin sheath, synapse, receptors

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19
Q

What are dendrites, terminal buttons and axon?

A

Dendrites: branching extensions off soma, input sites where signals are received from other neurons and sends it to cell body
Terminal buttons: transmit information to next neuron
Axon: range from fraction of inch to several feet, some have glial cells that form myelin sheath, transmits information across cell

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20
Q

What is a myelin sheath? What is consequence of more myelin and less myelin?

A

Myelin sheath coats axon, acts as insulator (increases speed signal travels), crucial for normal operation of neurons, the more neuron is used the more myelin develops
- More myelin, more effective communication within cell
- Multiple sclerosis, autoimmune disorder, involves large loss of myelin sheath in nervous system which prevents quick transmittal of information

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21
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Signalling molecule sent from one neuron to another through synapses

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22
Q

What is a synapse?

A

Very small space between two neurons, site where communication between neurons occurs, points of contact between one neuron and another

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23
Q

What are receptors?

A

Proteins on cell surface where neurotransmitters attach with different shapes matching specific neurotransmitters

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24
Q

Fill in blank for how neurons communicate:
Signals received from ______ then transmitted electrically across the _____ and down extension from soma, called ______, which ends at multiple _____ ______, which contain ______ _______ that house neurotransmitters, synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into _____, neutrotransmitters travel across small space and bind with ______ on the dendrites of the other neuron

A

Signals received from DENDRITES then transmitted electrically across the SOMA and down extension from soma, called AXON, which ends at multiple TERMINAL BUTTONS, which contain SYNAPTIC VESICLES that house neurotransmitters, synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into SYNAPSE, neurotransmitters travel across small space and bind with receptors on the dendrites of other neuron

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25
Q

What is the purpose of the neuronal (semipermeable) membrane?

A

Neuron is surrounded by extracellular fluid and contains intercellular fluid (cytoplasm) and neuronal membrane keeps them separate. This is important because the electrical signal passing through the neuron requires the intra- and extracellular fluids to have membrane potential (difference in electrical charge) which provides energy for the signal

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26
Q

What is resting potential?

A

Between signals, neuron membrane’s potential is in state of readiness, ions line up on either side of membrane, ready to rush across when neuron goes active and membrane opens its gates

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27
Q

What allows movement of ions across neuronal membrane?

A

Action potential releases neurotransmitters which travels across and binds to gates which open them and allow Na+ to flow in (sodium-potassium pump)

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28
Q

What is action potential

A

Positive spike, electrical signal moves down axon like a wave, at each point some Na+ that enters cell diffuses to next section of axon, raising charge past threshold of excitation and triggering new influx of Na+ . Action potential moves all the way down to terminal buttons

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29
Q

What are 4 steps of Action potential

A

1) Resting state
2) Depolarization (passed the threshold of excitation_
-Reaches peak of action potential
3) Repolarization
-Hits hyperpolarization, the dip
4) Resting state

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30
Q

What is resting state?

A

More negative charge inside neuron than outside

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31
Q

1) Explain Threshold of Excitation

A

Neuron receives signal at dendrites by neurotransmitters, small pores/gates open, allowing Na+ to move in. the internal charge of cell becomes more positive and if charge reaches certain level (threshold of excitation) neuron becomes active and action potential begins

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32
Q

Explain transition from peak action potential to resting state

A

Additional pores open, causing influx of Na+ and huge spike in membrane potential (peak action potential). Positively charged K+ leaves and cell begins repolarization. It hyperpolarizes, becoming slightly more negative, then K+ returns and neuron levels off enters resting state

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33
Q

What makes action potential less likely?

A

Presence of Cl- makes action potential less likely because it requires more Na+

34
Q

What signals next cell to start action potential

A

Peak of action potential signals to next cell to start its action potential

35
Q

What happens to excess neurotransmitters after action potential?

A

Once signal is delivered to adjacent neuron, excess neurotransmitters:
1) Drift away
2) Broken down into inactive fragments
3) Reuptake (neurotransmitter pumped back into neuron that released it)

36
Q

What is an excitatory neurotransmitter?
4 examples

A

Excitatory increases likelihood of action potential, increases positive charge
Examples: dopamine, norepinephrine, glutamate, acetylcholine

37
Q

What is an inhibitory neurotransmitter?
3 examples

A

Decreases likelihood of action potential, decreases positive charge
Examples: serotonin, GABA, endorphins

38
Q

Name forces which encourage Na+ to move in cell and K+ to move out.
Also additional force encouraging Na+

A

1) Ions in high concentration move to low concentration, Na+ is higher concentrated outside cell and K+ is higher concentrated inside cell
2) Positive ions move to areas with negative charge, Inside cell is slightly negative, further moving Na+ in

39
Q

What are psychotropic medications?

A

Drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance

40
Q

A) What is an agonist?
B) What is an antagonist?

A

A) Chemicals that strengthen neurotransmitter effects (by binding and mimicking it at receptor site)
B) Blocks/impedes normal activity of a neurotransmitter at receptor, by binding to receptors without activating them

41
Q

What are reuptake inhibitors?

A

Prevent unused neurotransmitters from being transported back into neuron, leaving more in synapse for a longer time, increasing its effects (e.g. SSRIs)

42
Q

Name functions of these 7 major neurotransmitters:
Noradrenaline (aka norepinephrine)
Dopamine
Serotonin
GABA
Acetylcholine
Glutamate
Endorphins

A

-Noradrenaline (aka norepinephrine): fight/flight
-Dopamine: mood/sleep/learning
-Serotonin: mood regulation
-Gaba: sleep/anxiety
-Acetylcholine: Muscle/memory
-Glutamate: Memory/learning
-Endorphins: Pain/pleasure

43
Q

What are the two major subdivisions of nervous system?

A

Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

44
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system?
What is it made of?

A

Connects CNS to rest of body
Made up of nerves (thick bundles of thousands of axons) which carry messages between CNS and muscles/organs/sense in periphery of body (everything outside of CNS)

45
Q

What are the two major subdivisions of peripheral nervous system?

A

Somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

46
Q

What does the somatic nervous system control?
What are the two types of neurons it consists of?

A

Associated with conscious/voluntary activity, involved in relay of information
Motor neurons: carry instructions from CNS to muscles, efferent fibers (‘moving away from’)
Sensory neurons: carry sensory information to CNS, afferent fibers (“moving toward”)

47
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system control?
What are its two major subdivisions?

A

Controls internal organs and glands, involuntary control, maintains homeostasis
Sympathetic nervous system: preparing body for stress-related activities, activated by stress/arousal, fight or flight
Parasympathetic nervous system: returning body to routine, day-to-day operation, once threat has been resolved/relaxed state

48
Q

What is the central nervous system?

A

Brain and spinal cord

49
Q

What does the spinal cord do?

A

Routes messages to and from brain, has its own system of automatic processes (reflexes)

50
Q

A) What is the spinal cord’s structure?
B) What are the spinal cord’s automatic reflexes?

A

A) top merges with brain stem, ends just below ribs, with 30 segments
Nerves branch out at every vertebra (sensory nerves: messages in, motor nerves: messages out), messages send to and from brain
B) Signal passes from sensory nerve to simple processing center, initiating motor command, saving seconds (e.g. knee jerk reaction)

51
Q

What is brain comprised of? What are three key parts of its structure?

A

Comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia.
Cerebral cortex: surface of brain
Gyri (folds/bumps of brain)
Sulci (grooves of brain), deep sulcus is called a fissure

52
Q

What separates two hemispheres of brain?
How does brain work?

A

Longitudinal fissure (most prominent sulcus)
Brain works contralaterally; left hemisphere controls right half of body and right hemisphere controls left half of body

53
Q

What allows the two hemispheres to communicate with one another? Example included.

A

Corpus callosum, a think band of neural fibers, consisting of approx. 200 million axons, allows two hemispheres to communicate with each other

Example: patient with severed corpus callosum unable to name picture that is in patient’s left visual field because information is only available in (nonverbal) right hemisphere, but they can draw with their left hand which is also controlled by right hemisphere.

54
Q

Three main categories brain is divided into?

A

Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

55
Q

What is the forebrain in charge of?
What are the two major structure categories of forebrain?

A

Conscious processes
Cerebral cortex and subcortical structures (other structures that lie beneath cortex)

56
Q

What is the cerebral cortex associated with? What does it include?

A

Associated with higher level processes such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory
Includes all the lobes

57
Q

What are the subcortical structures?

A

Thalamus: all senses (except smell) routed through thalamus before being directed to other parts of brain for processing, relay center of brain
Limbic system: processing emotion and memory
- Hippocampus: learning and memory
- Amygdala: experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to memory
- Hypothalamus: regulates number of homeostatic processes (body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure), links nervous system and endocrine system, and link between regulation of sexual motivation and behaviour

58
Q

What is the Case of Henry Molaison (H.M.)?

A

In 1952, Henry underwent surgery to remove his hippocampus and amygdala in an attempt to control his seizures. He was able to learn new skills but had no recollection of learning them

59
Q

What are the four lobes of the brain?

A

Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

60
Q

A) What does the frontal lobe involve?
B) Where is it located?

A

A) reasoning, motor control, emotion, language
B) from front of brain to fissure known as central sulcus

61
Q

What are three key parts of frontal lobe?

A

Primary motor cortex: involved in coordinating movement
Pre-frontal cortex: higher-level cognitive functioning
Broca’s area: language production, left hemisphere

62
Q

What does damage to Broca’s area cause?

A

Damage to this area leads to difficulty producing language (but can understand)

63
Q

a) What is parietal lobe involved with?
b) Where is it located?

A

A) Processing sensory information
B) Located immediately behind frontal lobe

64
Q

What is key cortex of parietal lobe? How is it organized?

A

Somatosensory cortex: processes sensory information from across body (e.g. touch, temperature)
Organized topographically, spatial relationships between body parts are mirrored in organization on surface of somatosensory cortex

65
Q

What is temporal lobe involved with?
Where is it located?

A

Hearing, memory, emotion, some aspects of language
Located on sides of head

66
Q

What are two key parts of temporal lobe

A

Primary auditory cortex: processes auditory information
Wernicke’s area: speech comprehension

67
Q

What does damage to Wernicke’s area cause?

A

Difficulty understanding language (but can produce sensible language)

68
Q

What is the occipital love involved with?
Where is it located?

A

Processing visual information
Located at back of brain

69
Q

How are nerves organized in occipital lobe?

A

Nerves organized retinotopically (close relationship between position of object in person’s visual field and position of object’s representation on cortex)

70
Q

What is key cortex in occipital lobe?

A

Primary visual cortex: interprets incoming visual information

71
Q

Function of the midbrain? Location?

A

Neurotransmitters made here
Comprised of structures located deep within brain, between forebrain and hindbrain

72
Q

A) 3 major parts of midbrain?
B) 2 other parts?

A

A) Reticular formation: centered in midbrain but extends into forebrain and hind brain, important in regulating arousal (sleep/wake, alertness, etc.)
- Example: falling asleep in class, suddenly waking up around police
Substantia nigra and Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA): both contain cell bodies that produce neurotransmitter dopamine and are critical in movement, also involved in mood, reward, and addiction
- Degeneration of these are involved in Parkinson’s disease
B) Raphe Nuclei: produces serotonin
Locus Coeruleus: produces norepinephrine

73
Q

What is hindbrain’s function?
Where is it located?

A

Unconscious processes
Located at back of head, looks like extension of spinal cord

74
Q

3 key parts of hindbrain?

A

Medulla: controls automatic processes of autonomic nervous system (e.g. breathing, blood pressure, heartrate)
Pons: connects brain and spinal cord, takes information from cerebellum to rest of body, involved in regulating brain activity during sleep
Cerebellum: fine motor skills, receives messages to control balance and movement, also processes some types of memories (procedural memory, involved in performing tasks)
- Movement does not start here, it is formulated in fore brain and sent here for refinement

75
Q

What is the brainstem made of?

A

Medulla, pons, and midbrain

76
Q

What are three major types of brain imaging?

A

Radiation, magnetic field, electrical activity

77
Q

What are two major types of radiation?

A

Computerized tomography (CT)
Positron emission tomography (PET)

78
Q

What is computerized tomography (CT) and how does it work?

A

Sees structure of brain and abnormalities, involves taking x-rays of section of one’s brain.
X-rays pass through tissues of different densities at different rates, which allows computer to construct image.

79
Q

What is positron emission tomography (PET) and how does it work?
What are two cons?

A

-Sees function of brain, good for understanding neurotransmitter receptors
-Drinks/injected with a tracer (mildly radioactive substance), as brain areas become more active more blood flows to area, movement of tracer creates rough map of active/inactive brain during given behaviour
-Little detail (cannot exactly pinpoint time), requires exposure to radiation, replaced by fMRI most of time

80
Q

What is the main type of magnetic field imaging?

A

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): magnetic field causes hydrogen atoms in body cells to align, when magnetic field is turned off atomsemit electromagnetic signals as they return to their original positions. Machine measures these bursts of energy, tissues of different densities give off different signals which computer interprets and displays.

81
Q

What is an fMRI?

A

Functional magnetic resonance imaging: same principles as MRI but shows changes in brain activity by tracking blood flow and oxygen levels

82
Q

What is main type of electrical activity imaging and what is it good for?
How does it work?

A

Electroencephalography (EEG): provides measure of brain’s electrical activity (action potentials),
good to see overall activity of brain, without needing information on location of activity.
Array of electrodes place around a person’s head, signals received by electrodes result in printout of electrical activity (brainwaves) and the frequency and amplitude with accuracy to milliseconds

Psychology 101 - Midterm (10 decks)

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