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X Anatomy 1B > Reproductive System > Flashcards

Reproductive System Flashcards

1
Q

what 6 parts is the human male reproductive tract formed from?

A 
testis
epididymis
ductus defrens
accessory glands
urethra
penis
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2
Q

what is the male gonad?

A

testis

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3
Q

what are the testis the source of?

A

male androgen hormone (testosterone) and gametes

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4
Q

what makes up the external genitalia?

A

penis and scrotum

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5
Q

what is the epididymis continuous with?

A

ductus defrens

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6
Q

where do the testis develop?

A

in the abdomen at the level of the kidneys

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7
Q

what happens to the testes at birth/just prior?

A

migrate through hole in the abdominal wall (inguinal canal) to the scrotum

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8
Q

what is descent of the testes guided by?

A

gubernaculum

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9
Q

what does the testis bring with it as it descends?

A

‘lifeline’ spermatic cord - including blood vessels, nerves and sperm transport duct
also brings fascia from the abdomen which covers it within the scrotal sac

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10
Q

what happens within the epididymis?

A

sperm maturation, transport and storage

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11
Q

where is the sperm manufactured?

A

semiphorous tubules within lobules of the testis

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12
Q

what happens during travel through epididymis?

A

fluid is reabsorbed

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13
Q

what part of the epididymis is sperm stored in?

A

tail

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14
Q

how many days does it take for sperm to travel through the epididymis?

A

12-16 days

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15
Q

what does the acrosome of sperm contain?

A

enzymes to penetrate oocyte

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16
Q

what is found on the midpiece of sperm?

A

mitochondria to produce the ATP required to power flagella movements

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17
Q

what is the ductus defrens continuous with?

A

tail of epididymis

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18
Q

what are the walls of the human ductus defrens formed of?

A

thick smooth muscle

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19
Q

what is the role of smooth muscle in the ductus defrens?

A

contracts to propel sperm movement

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20
Q

how does the ductus defrens exit the abdomen?

A

passes through inguinal canal

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21
Q

where is sperm emptied into at ejaculation?

A

urethra

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22
Q

what is involved in a vasectomy?

A

cutting or tying off ductus defrens

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23
Q

where is the urethra located?

A

from base of bladder to external urethral opening

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24
Q

how long is the male urethra?

A

~20cm

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25
Q

what is the urethra lined with?

A

uroepithelium

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26
Q

what are the 3 segments of the urethra?

A

prostatic, membranous, and spongy/penile

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27
Q

where is the attachment for external genitalia found?

A

perineal membrane

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28
Q

what is the role of accessory sex glands?

A

make the seminal fluid

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29
Q

where are the ampulla found?

A

dilated distal ends of the ductus defrens

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30
Q

what is produced by the ampulla in human males?

A

minor amount of seminal fluid

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31
Q

how much of the seminal fluid is produced by seminal vesicles in men?

A

60%

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32
Q

what is found in the secretions of the seminal vesicles?

A

nutrients for sperm (fructose)
fibrinogen
enzymes

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33
Q

what is the role of fibrinogen in semen?

A

maintains life of sperm and facilitates swimming

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34
Q

what do the seminal vesicles join with?

A

ductus defrens

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35
Q

what is the name of the duct formed when the seminal vesicles and ductus defrens join?

A

ejaculatory duct

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36
Q

how much of the seminal fluid is produced by the prostate in men?

A

40%

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37
Q

what is contained in seminal fluid produced by the prostate?

A

buffers to counteract acidic urethra and vagina

clotting factors which act on fibrinogen and led to coagulation

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38
Q

what is the consistency of the seminal fluid produced by the prostate?

A

thin/milky

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39
Q

where do ejaculatory ducts open?

A

seminal colliculus

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40
Q

where is the seminal colliculus?

A

raised area on prostatic urethra

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41
Q

what do bulbourethral glands produce?

A

small amounts of clear, pre-ejaculatory fluid

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42
Q

where do bulbourethral glands empty into?

A

penile/spongy urethra at the level of the perineal membrane

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43
Q

what is the role of pre-ejaculatory fluid?

A

flushes urethra

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44
Q

where is the root of the penis attached?

A

at perineal membrane by two crura which sit between the rami of the pelvis

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45
Q

what is the main part of the penis called?

A

the body/shaft

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46
Q

what is the tip of the penis called?

A

glans

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47
Q

what does the glans contain?

A

external urethral oriface

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48
Q

what is the erectile tissue formed from?

A

2 corpora cavernosa and 1 corpus spongiosum

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49
Q

what are corpus cavernosa?

A

paired cavernous bodies that form the main erectile bodies of the shaft

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50
Q

what are the corpus cavernosa attached to?

A

the perineal membrane via crura

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51
Q

where is the corpus spongiosum located?

A

surrounding the urethra, forms the bulb proximally and glans of the penis

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52
Q

what is the purpose of the corpus spongiosum?

A

allows passage of products through the urethra

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53
Q

what artery supplies the penis?

A

internal pudendal (larger in males)

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54
Q

what is the internal pudendal artery a branch of?

A

internal illiac

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55
Q

how does orientation of the testis vary in domestic species?

A

may be vertical or horizontally aligned

some are located near the perineum (cats)

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56
Q

how do testis differ between the bull and stallion?

A

bull -vertical arrangement of epididymis and testis

stallion - horizontal arrangement of epididymis and testis

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57
Q

describe snake testicles

A

internal and elongated

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58
Q

how do accessory sex glands vary between species?

A

presence and size varies

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59
Q

what are seminal vesicles known as in domestic species?

A

vesicular glands

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60
Q

which species has large bulbourethral glands?

A

the pig

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61
Q

where does most seminal secretion occur from in dogs?

A

prostate gland

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62
Q

what are the 2 main types of penis?

A

musculocavernous

fibroelastic

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63
Q

describe a musculocavernous penis

A

flaccid when not in use and covered by prepuce. becomes engorged with blood to produce erection

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64
Q

give 3 examples of species with a musculocavernous penis

A

cat
horse
man

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65
Q

what is specialised about the dogs penis?

A

has os penis formed from ossification of the corpora cavernosa
large bulbus glands enable locking during mating

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66
Q

describe a fibroelastic penis

A

few cavernous spaces
more solid structure that elongates during erection
retractor penis muscle relaxes to allow sigmoid flexure to straighten

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67
Q

does the shape of the penis vary between species?

A

yes

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68
Q

what is the role of the urethral process on a rams penis?

A

can pass through the cervix

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69
Q

how long is the human ovary?

A

4cm

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70
Q

what is the ovary the site of?

A

egg maturation (oogenesis)

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71
Q

what does the ovary produce that has effect on the body?

A

hormones

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72
Q

what happens to ovaries after the menopause?

A

reduce in size, become shrunken.

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73
Q

what ligament are ovaries attached by?

A

ovarian ligament

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74
Q

what is the role of the suspensory ligament of the uterus?

A

brings blood vessels to the ovary

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75
Q

what 2 parts is the uterus formed of?

A

body and cervix

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76
Q

what hormones are produced by the ovaries?

A

oestrogen
progesterone
testostorone

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77
Q

what is the name of the fibrous outer coat of the ovary?

A

Tunica albuginea

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78
Q

what is found in the outer cortex of human ovaries?

A

follicles

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79
Q

what is in the inner medulla of the ovary?

A

vascular supply and nerves

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80
Q

what does egg maturation involve?

A

follicogenesis and oogenesis

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81
Q

when is egg release from the ovary timed for?

A

when the uterine wall is most primed for implantation

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82
Q

what is the uterine tube?

A

aka oviduct/fallopian tube

from ovary to uterus

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83
Q

what is the infundibulum in mammals?

A

finger-like fimbriae that collect ova. Become engorged and cover surface of ovary during ovulation

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84
Q

how is the egg moved through the fallopian tube?

A

by cilia and peristaltic movements of fluid

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85
Q

what is the ampulla of the fallopian tube?

A

wider part of the tube

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86
Q

what occurs in the ampulla?

A

fertilisation

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87
Q

what is the isthmus of the fallopian tube?

A

narrow part of the fallopian tube

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88
Q

how long is the human uterus?

A

~10cm

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89
Q

what occurs in the body of the uterus?

A

implantation

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90
Q

what happens to the lining of the body of the uterus id there is no implantation of an egg?

A

lining is shed (menses)

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91
Q

what is the external os?

A

opening into the cervix

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92
Q

how does the cervix appear on a woman who has not had a vaginal delivery?

A

normal nulliparous - small hole

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93
Q

how does the cervix appear on a woman who has had a vaginal delivery?

A

normal parous - slit

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94
Q

what is the endometrium?

A

lining of the uterus which is shed during menses

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95
Q

what causes change in endometrium thickness?

A

cyclic hormones cause thickening to prepare for implantation and a reduction in progesterone leads to shedding

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96
Q

what is the body of the uterus formed of?

A

thick smooth muscle

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97
Q

what is the cervix made of?

A

dense smooth muscle

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98
Q

what is the effect of progesterone on the mucous in the cervix?

A

thickens

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99
Q

what effect does oestrogen have on mucous at the cervix?

A

dilutes it to allow sperm to pass through

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100
Q

describe the normal uterus position in the human?

A

anteverted (folded over the bladder) and anteflexed (flexed at cervix)

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101
Q

what is the uterus held in position by?

A

round ligament

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102
Q

where does the round ligament attach?

A

runs from uterine tube and passes through inguinal canal and attaches to vulva

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103
Q

what are the anterior relations of the uterus and vagina

A

bladder and urethra

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104
Q

what are the posterior relations of the uterus and vagina?

A

rectum and lower GI tract

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105
Q

how long is the human vagina?

A

~10cm

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106
Q

what is the wall of the vagina formed of?

A

distensible smooth muscle

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107
Q

what is the vagina lined with?

A

stratified squamous non-keratinised epithelium

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108
Q

what do glands in the vagina secrete?

A

lubricant

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109
Q

what is the role of the vagina?

A

copulation, passage of menses and birth canal

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110
Q

what forms the vestibule in humans?

A

area between the labia where openings of the vagina and urethra are

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111
Q

what is the perineum?

A

surface area and all it’s contents between inner thighs

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112
Q

what is the clitoris the homologue of ?

A

the glans

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113
Q

what type of tissue is the clitoris formed of?

A

erectile tissue

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114
Q

what is the broad ligament?

A

perineal fold over uterine tube and anterior and posterior surface of uterus

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115
Q

what does the broad ligament carry?

A

blood vessels and nerves

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116
Q

what are the 3 parts of the broad ligament?

A

mesovarium
mesosalpinx
mesometrium

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117
Q

where is the mesovarium found?

A

around ovary

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118
Q

where is the mesosalpinx found?

A

around uterine tube

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119
Q

where is the mesometrium found?

A

around the uterus

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120
Q

in the human where do ovaries sit on the broad ligament?

A

posterior

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121
Q

what is the role of the broad ligament?

A

support uterus and ovaries

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122
Q

what is the fundus of the uterus?

A

area above where uterine tubes enter

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123
Q

what artery supplies the ovaries?

A

ovarian artery

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124
Q

what is the ovarian artery a branch of?

A

Aorta

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125
Q

what is the ovarian ligament supported by?

A

suspensory ligament of ovary

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126
Q

what are the uterine and vaginal arteries a branch of?

A

internal illiac

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127
Q

how are the blood supplies of ovaries, uterus and vagina linked?

A

form anastomoses with each other to provide a wide supply to the tissues

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128
Q

how does release of female gametes differ from male?

A

female are released discontinuously in cycles

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129
Q

what do oocytes mature within?

A

follicles

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130
Q

where are follicles found in most domestic species ovaries?

A

cortex

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131
Q

what does follicles in the cortex mean for the appearance of the ovary?

A

follicles are visible and palpable externally

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132
Q

what happens to follicles when mature in ovaries where they are found in the cortex?

A

burst on external surface

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133
Q

where are horses follicles found?

A

medulla

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134
Q

what does the position of horses follicles in the medulla mean for the outwards appearance of the ovary?

A

smooth externally

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135
Q

where do follicles erupt in horses?

A

in ovarian/ovulatory fossa

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136
Q

where is the ovarian/ovulatory fossa found?

A

depression on the medial boarder of ovary

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137
Q

in what species is only one ovary found?

A

birds and some reptiles

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138
Q

in hens, what is the entire tract (from infundibulum to cloaca) called?

A

the oviduct

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139
Q

what are the parts of the uterine tube found in egg laying reptiles and birds?

A 
Infundibulum - collects yolk
Magnum - produces albumin
Isthmus - shell membranes produced 
Uterus - shell forms
vagina
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140
Q

where does fertilization occur in egg laying reptiles/birds?

A

Infundibulum

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141
Q

what is the uterus known as in egg laying reptiles/birds?

A

shell gland

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142
Q

what feature of the vagina in egg laying reptiles and birds aids egg laying?

A

very muscular

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143
Q

describe a simplex uterus

A

1 cervix
large uterine body
no horns

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144
Q

how many cervix are found in a simplex and bicornuate uterus?

A

1

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145
Q

in what species is a simplex uterus found?

A

humans, apes, bats

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146
Q

describe a bicornuate uterus

A

1 cervix, small uterine body, long uterine horns

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147
Q

what is the role of long uterine horns in bicornuate uteri

A

enables attachment of large litters along horns

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148
Q

in what species is a duplex uterus found?

A

rats, mice rabbits

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149
Q

in what species is a bicornuate uterus found?

A

dog, pig, horse, sheep

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150
Q

describe a duplex uterus

A

2 cervices, separate horns, no uterine body (no fusion of paramesonephric duct)

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151
Q

what is the vestibule in domestic species?

A

vagina and urethra join in common opening

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152
Q

what marks the change from vagina to vestibule in domestic species?

A

presence of external urethral opening within the body

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153
Q

what is the cloaca?

A

common opening for excretion defaecation and copulation

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154
Q

do birds have external genitalia?

A

no

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155
Q

what occurs in the seminephorus tubules?

A

spermatogenesis

156
Q

what makes up excurrent ducts?

A

rete testis
efferent ductules
epididymis

157
Q

what is the role of the epididymis?

A

maturation of sperm

158
Q

what are the pampiniform plexus in the testis?

A

veins which drain blood away from the testis

159
Q

what are the 3 main cells found in the seminiferous tubule?

A

leydig cells
sertoli cells
germ cells

160
Q

where are leydig cells found?

A

surrounding connective tissue

161
Q

what is the role of leydig cells?

A

make testosterone

162
Q

what does testosterone work with to maximise sperm production?

A

FSH

163
Q

what type of hormone is testosterone?

A

steroid

164
Q

where are sertoli cells found?

A

in seminephorus tubule

165
Q

what is the role of sertoli cells?

A

support developing sperm cells (form syncitium)

166
Q

where are germ cells least mature?

A

periphery

167
Q

where are germ cells most mature?

A

near lumen

168
Q

what allows continuous production of sperm?

A

always at different stages of development (spermatogenesis) in the testis

169
Q

where are efferent ductules found?

A

head of epididymis

170
Q

how does the head of the epididymis appear histologically?

A

saw toothed lumen

171
Q

what epithelium is the head of the epididymis formed of?

A

pseudostratified epithelium with ciliated cells and non ciliated tall columnar cells

172
Q

what is the role of non ciliated tall columnar cells?

A

fluid absorption

173
Q

what must happen to sperm in order to reach maturity

A

must pass through duct of epididymis and be covered in maturation factors

174
Q

how does the tail of the epididymis appear histologically?

A

smooth, uniform lumen with thick epithelium

175
Q

what epithelium is the tail of the epididymis formed of?

A

pseudostratified epithelium cells with stereocilia to increase surface area for absorption and secretion of maturation factors

176
Q

what is follicogenesis?

A

follicle maturation including egg

177
Q

when are all primordial follicles formed?

A

before birth

178
Q

what is a woman’s egg reserve?

A

total number of primordial follicles

179
Q

why may more than one oocyte be released per month?

A

if a species is polyovulatory

180
Q

when is oocyte meiosis completed?

A

only at fertilisation as oocyte in primordial follicles remains in arrested meiosis

181
Q

what is the zona pelicunda?

A

where the sperm bind preventing polyspermi

182
Q

how does oestrogen reach the blood stream?

A

builds up in antrum of secondary follicle, is released into the blood after ovulation

183
Q

what is the wall of the uterine tube formed of?

A

outer longitudinal and inner circular muscles

184
Q

what is the lining of the uterine tube?

A

ciliated columnar epithelium

185
Q

how is the ova transported along the tube into the uterus?

A

peristalsis and cilia

186
Q

what is the role of secretions in the uterine tube?

A

nourish fertilised egg and allow egg to start first divisions

187
Q

how does the human uterine tube appear histologically?

A

highly folded

188
Q

what are the 3 layers of the human uterus?

A

perimetrium, myometrium, endometrium

189
Q

where is the perimetrium located?

A

outermost layer of the uterus

190
Q

what is the perimetrium formed of?

A

layer of peritoneum

191
Q

what is the myometrium formed of?

A

3 layers of smooth muscle

192
Q

what layer of the uterus is the myometrium?

A

middle

193
Q

what is the endometrium formed of?

A

vascular and glandular tissue

194
Q

what is the endometrium thickness regulated by?

A

hormones of menstrual cycle

195
Q

what layer of the uterus is the endometrium?

A

innermost

196
Q

describe the cascade of sexual differentiation

A

genetic sex leads to gonadal sex and so hormonal sex. Hormonal sex leads to duct and genital sex, and brain sex. Brain sex is then divided into neuroendocrine sex and behavioral sex

197
Q

when is the indifferent phase of sexual differentiation?

A

week 1-7

198
Q

when is genotypic sex determined?

A

when the gametes unite at conception

199
Q

the early embryonic gonad is ….?

A

bipotential

200
Q

what is sex determined by?

A

the presence of a single transcription factor

201
Q

what transcription factor determines sex?

A

SRY protein

202
Q

where is the SRY protein encoded?

A

encoded on the sex determining region of Y chromosome

203
Q

what is the sex determining region on the Y chromosome also known as?

A

Testis determining factor

204
Q

where do gonads develop?

A

on the genital/gonadal ridges

205
Q

what is week 5 of the embryo’s development the beginning of?

A

differentiation period

206
Q

what happens during initial gonadal development?

A

primordial germ cells migrate from the yolk sac to genital ridge to become oocytes/spermatazoa

207
Q

what are the 2 ducts found in gonadal sex development?

A

mesonephric and paramesonephric duct

208
Q

what effect does testosterone have on mesenephric and paramesonephric ducts?

A

amplifies mesonephric duct

209
Q

what does the mesonephric duct go on to form in the male?

A

ductus defrens

210
Q

what effect does antimullerian hormone have on mesenephric and paramesonephric ducts?

A

regresses paramesonephric duct

211
Q

how do the mesenephric and paramesonephric ducts respond differently in the female gonad with female hormones?

A

lack of testosterone degenerates mesonephric duct

lack of antimullerian hormone prevents regression of paramesonephric duct

212
Q

what does the paramesonephric duct go on to form in the female?

A

uterus, fallopian tubes and upper 1/3 of vagina

213
Q

what is the indifferent duct stage?

A

in foetus weeks 6-8 both sets of ducts are present

214
Q

what promotes the development of sex specific ducts?

A

presence or absence of testicular hormones

215
Q

what is the effect of testosterone on duct sex?

A

stimulate mesonephric ducts to form epididymis, ductus defrens and seminal vesicles

216
Q

why do paramesonephric ducts develop?

A

because of an absence of AMH and form upper vagina, uterus and oviducts

217
Q

what does the genital tubercle go on to form in the male and female?

A

male: prepuce
female: clitoris

218
Q

what does the genital fold go on to form in the male and female?

A

male: urethral groove
female: labia minora

219
Q

what does the genital swelling go on to form in the male and female?

A

male: scrotum
female: labia majora

220
Q

what is the effect of AMH in the testis?

A

regression of paramesonephric ducts

221
Q

what is the effect of testosterone in the testis?

A

growth of seminal vesicles and ductus defrens

222
Q

what is the effect of DHT in the testis during development?

A

fusion of labial scrotal folds and growth of phallus and prostate

223
Q

what is the effect of lack of AMH in the ovary?

A

differentiation and growth of fallopian tubes, uterus and upper 1/3 of vagina

224
Q

what is the effect of lack of testosterone in the ovary?

A

regression of mesonephric ducts

225
Q

what hormone are all foetuses exposed to in the placenta?

A

oestrogen

226
Q

how do hormones influence development of sex-specific behavior and sex preferences?

A

via differentially inducing expression of hormone receptors in the brain

227
Q

what does the growth of the foetus displace?

A

abdominal organs

228
Q

what is the effect of progesterone on digestion?

A

relaxes smooth muscle which can slow digestion

229
Q

what is a big danger during pregnancy in horses?

A

the colon can become twisted and cause colic

230
Q

what does torsion/twisting of the equine colon over 90 degrees lead to?

A

veins are cut off so there is limited drainage of metabolites and toxins

231
Q

what does torsion/twisting of the equine colon over 270 degrees lead to?

A

ischemia and rupture of the uterine artery

232
Q

what causes varicose veins and oedema in pregnancy?

A

venous return is restricted

233
Q

what is another cause of oedema in pregnancy?

A

increase in cortisol and aldosterone which cause water retention in the kidney

234
Q

what can oedema be a sign of?

A

pre-eclampsia

235
Q

what can an increase in melanin production lead to?

A

melasma due to increased pigmentation of the skin
darkening of freckles and moles
linea nigra appears in place of linea alba

236
Q

what is an increase in melanin production due to?

A

response to pregnancy hormones

237
Q

what hormone is released in the latter half of pregnancy?

A

relaxin

238
Q

what is the role of relaxin?

A

loosens joints and ligaments which creates more space for the birth canal

239
Q

what can relaxin cause?

A

pelvic symphysis disorder

240
Q

what is the effect of relaxin and oestrogen on the cervix in late pregnancy?

A

soften the cervix by breaking down dense collagenous tissue and making the cervix distensible

241
Q

what do mammary glands produce?

A

colostrum and then milk

242
Q

what are mammary glands formed of?

A

modified and enlarged sweat glands

243
Q

what are mammary glands lined with?

A

cuboidal epithelial cells

244
Q

what are mammary glands surrounded by?

A

myoepithelial cells

245
Q

what happens to ducts in the first half of pregnancy?

A

rapid proliferation

246
Q

what happens to ducts in the first half of pregnancy?

A

alveoli (groups of ducts) enlarge and begin secretion

247
Q

what type of glands are mammary glands?

A

apocrine glands

248
Q

where are mammary glands positioned?

A

between skin and muscle

249
Q

what is the role of areolar glands?

A

lubrication and protection of nipple

250
Q

what can happen to areolar pigmentation during pregnancy?

A

increases

251
Q

what is a species number of mammary glands dependent on?

A

number of offspring per litter

252
Q

what is the lactiferous sinus?

A

large cavity that drains into the nipple

253
Q

where do lactiferous ducts open?

A

in pore on the nipple surface

254
Q

what is a lactiferous duct supplied by?

A

15-20 lobes

255
Q

what are lobes of the mammary glands surrounded by?

A

interlobar connective and adipose tissues

256
Q

describe the structure of mammary glands in cows

A

lactiferous duct drains into gland sinus. This drains into the teat sinus and then out of the teat canal

257
Q

what happens to lumen size at each sinus of the cow mammary glands?

A

thinning of lumen size caused by smooth muscle

258
Q

what effect does suckling have on filling of teat sinus?

A

causes milk let down, leads to filling of the teat sinus and exit of milk

259
Q

what is the difference between menstrual and oestrus cycles?

A

lack of menstruation in oestrus cycles

260
Q

what happens to the endometrium during oestrus cycles?

A

is reabsorbed

261
Q

what happens to the endometrium during menstrual cycles?

A

is shed

262
Q

what days of the menstrual cycle does the follicular phase take place?

A

day 6-13

263
Q

what is secreted by the pituitary gland at the start of the follicular phase?

A

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

264
Q

what does FSH stimulate during the follicular phase?

A

stimulates ovaries to develop follicles where one will become dominant

265
Q

what hormone will the growing follicles produce?

A

oestrogen

266
Q

what does oestrogen stimulate during the follicular phase?

A

the lining of the uterus to thicken by encouraging vasoconstriction and formation of new blood vessels
also thins cervical mucous and so increases fertility

267
Q

what happens around day 14?

A

ovulation

268
Q

what do increased oestrogen levels lead to happen around day 14?

A

pituitary gland releases luteinising hormone (LH) leading to LH surge

269
Q

how long will the egg survive post ovulation?

A

~24 hours

270
Q

how long can sperm survive in the uterus?

A

3-5 days

271
Q

when is the most fertile period?

A

before and around ovulation

272
Q

what days does the luteal phase occur?

A

15-28

273
Q

what does the follicle become after ovulation?

A

corpus luteum

274
Q

what hormone does the corpus luteum produce?

A

progesterone and a small amount of oestrogen

275
Q

what happens to the corpus luteum after 14 days if there is not a pregnancy?

A

degrades

276
Q

what is the effect of progesterone on the uterus?

A

maximises thickness of uterine lining and glands become secretory
cervical mucous thickens to form a barrier

277
Q

what day does menses occur?

A

1-5

278
Q

what hormone levels drop during menses?

A

oestrogen and progesterone

279
Q

what happens to the uterine lining during menses?

A

is shed

280
Q

what hormone is secreted by the implanted embryo if fertilisation occurs?

A

human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

281
Q

what is the effect of hCG?

A

maintains the corpus luteum and so oestrogen and progesterone are still produced until the placenta is established
uterus lining is maintained

282
Q

what is measured in pregnancy tests?

A

hCG levels

283
Q

what do high levels of progesterone in pregnancy prevent?

A

further ovulation

284
Q

what is the oestrus cycle?

A

period of sexual activity

285
Q

define seasonally monoestrus

A

only 1 period of sexual activity during a season at a particular time of year e.g. fox

286
Q

define dioestrus

A

go into oestrus twice a year (e.g.dog)

287
Q

define polyoestrus

A

can go through a succession of oestrus cycles during a particular time of the year (e.g cat, cow)

288
Q

define seasonal polyoestrus

A

can go through a success of oestrus cycles during a particular time of the year (e.g. horse, sheep). ensures offspring arrive at a prosperous time of year

289
Q

what sort of ovulators are most species?

A

spontaneous

290
Q

what are induced ovulators?

A

species which require mating to stimulate ovulation (e.g. cats)

291
Q

what organs are bypassed in the foetus?

A

liver and lungs

292
Q

why are the liver and lungs bypassed in the foetus?

A

as they are not used until after birth

293
Q

what is oxygen and nutrient rich blood supplied to the foetus by?

A

placenta through the umbilical vein

294
Q

what happens soon after birth when the first breath is taken?

A

pulmonary vessels increase in size and pulmonary circulation takes over

295
Q

what remains in the adult of foetal structures?

A

remnants

296
Q

what does fetal circulation consist of?

A

umbilical blood vessels and 3 shunts

297
Q

what are the 2 umbilical blood vessels?

A

umbilical vein and artery

298
Q

what are the 3 shunts of the fetal circulation?

A

ductus venosus
foramen ovale
ductus arteriosus

299
Q

what is a shunt?

A

vessel which diverts blood

300
Q

what is the role of the umbilical vein?

A

carries oxygenated blood from placenta to liver

301
Q

what does the umbilical vein become after birth?

A

teres ligament covered by the falciform ligament

302
Q

what happens to the umbilical vein in the calf?

A

retains patency and is open until a few months after birth

303
Q

what is the role of the ductus venosus?

A

allows the majority of oxygenated blood to bypass liver

304
Q

what does the ductus venosus connect?

A

umbilical vein to caudal vena cava

305
Q

what does the ductus venosus become after birth?

A

ligamentum venosum

306
Q

what is the role of the foramen ovale?

A

a hole in the interatrial septum which allows oxygenated blood to pass from the right to left atrium

307
Q

what is happens to the foramen ovale after birth?

A

valve closes to leave fossa ovalis

308
Q

what is the role of the ductus arteriosus?

A

allows deoxygenated blood to bypass the lungs

309
Q

what does the ductus arteriosus connect?

A

pulmonary trunk to the aorta

310
Q

what does the ductus arteriosus become after birth?

A

ligamentum arteriosum

311
Q

what is the role of umbilical arteries?

A

carry deoxygenated blood from the aorta to the placenta

312
Q

what happens to the umbilical arteries after birth?

A

proximal ends remain open and help supply the bladder with blood
distal ends close

313
Q

in mammals where does the egg develop?

A

within the female body

314
Q

what does the placenta allow to take place?

A

physiological exchange (e.g. nutrients, gases and excretory products)

315
Q

what does the placenta produce?

A

hormones which establish and support pregnancy

316
Q

where should the placenta develop?

A

posterior boarder of uterus

317
Q

what to the fetal membranes create?

A

placenta

318
Q

what do the membranes and placenta do?

A

protect embryo/fetus during pregnancy and provide for nutrition, respiration and excretion

319
Q

what are the names of the 4 fetal membranes?

A

amnion
chorion
allantois
yolk sac

320
Q

what are all 4 fetal membranes formed by?

A

zygote

321
Q

what does the placenta form from?

A

fetal chorion and maternal endometrium

322
Q

what is the decidua?

A

area of endometrium where blastocyst implants and placenta is formed

323
Q

atbirth what is expelled as afterbirth?

A

umbilical cord, amnion, placenta and chorion

324
Q

define fetal membrane

A

any tissue or structure developed from fertilized ovum which does not form part of the embryo itself.

325
Q

what does the embryoblast form?

A

the embryo

326
Q

what does the trophoblast form?

A

part of the placenta

327
Q

what are the inner and outer cell masses of the blastocyst?

A

inner - embryoblast

outer - trophoblast

328
Q

what 2 layers does the trophoblast differentiate into?

A

cytotrophoblast

syncytiotrophoblast

329
Q

what is the name of the outer layer of the trophoblast?

A

syncytiotrophoblast

330
Q

what is invaded by the syncytiotrophoblast?

A

maternal endometrium

331
Q

describe the formation of the human placenta

A

lacunae form in the syncytiotrophoblast, the cells of the syncytiotrophoblast erode the walls of maternal capillaries and so maternal blood enters the lacunae.

332
Q

how is a large exchange surface created in the placenta?

A

projections of trophoblast cells (villi) grow into the maternal tissue

333
Q

do maternal and foetal circulation ever combine?

A

no - are in close apposition but never mix

334
Q

why is it essential that maternal and fetal blood never meet?

A

fetus would be detected as foreign and initiate immune response
fetal antibodies are fatal to the mother

335
Q

when is the chorionic cavity formed?

A

as the embryo implants

336
Q

what is the chorionic plate?

A

extraembryonic mesoderm lining the inside of the trophoblast

337
Q

where do blood vessels develop to form the umbilical cord?

A

the connecting stalk

chorionic plate

338
Q

what is the placenta a fusion of?

A

tissues not blood!

339
Q

what cavity surrounds the fetus?

A

amniotic

340
Q

where is the placenta positioned in placenta previa?

A

over or close to the cervix

341
Q

what happens to the fetal membranes as the fetus develops

A

amniotic cavity increases in size

chorionic cavity decreases in size and amnion and chorionic plate fuse

342
Q

what happens in the domestic species formation of the placenta?

A

some of the yolk sac is taken into the embryo to form gut tube. external part forms a provisional placenta

343
Q

what is the name of the provisional placenta in domestic species?

A

choriovitelline

344
Q

where does the embryo remain in domestic species?

A

the centre of the uterus rather than being embedded in uterine wall like humans

345
Q

what surrounds the embryo of domestic species?

A

amnion which is filled with fluid

346
Q

how is the yolk sac attached to the embryo?

A

at umbilicus

347
Q

what is the outermost embryonic tissue of domestic species?

A

chorion

348
Q

what is the chorion associated with in domestic species?

A

endometrium of uterus

349
Q

what is the role of chorionic villi?

A

project into endometrium to bring fetal blood close to maternal blood

350
Q

what does the overgrowth of hindgut form in domestic species?

A

allantoic cavity

351
Q

what forms the definitive placenta in domestic species?

A

allantoic cavity and chorion

352
Q

what is the name of the definitive placenta in domestic species?

A

chorioallantoic

353
Q

what does the chorioallantoic placenta become vascularised with?

A

umbilical vessels

354
Q

in the pig does the allantois (and vasculature) extend to tips of chorion

A

no - there is no anastomosis between embryos so each one has their own blood supply

355
Q

in the cow does the allantois (and vasculature) extend to tips of chorion?

A

yes - there is anastomosis between embryos which allows for freemartinism (influence of androgens of male embryo on female development)

356
Q

what is the placenta arrangement like in a horse?

A

allantois totally surrounds the amnion so only chorioallantoic connections exist

357
Q

how can species with only chorioallantoic connections be born?

A

totally enclosed in amnion which must be removed to avoid suffocation

358
Q

why doesn’t amnion rupture in species with only chorioallantoic connections in the placenta?

A

amnion does not need to rupture as not attached to chorion

359
Q

what is the placenta arrangement like in ruminants and pigs?

A

amnion is in connection with the chorion

360
Q

how can species with amnion is in connection with the chorion be born?

A

not totally enclosed in the amnion

361
Q

why does the amnion rupture in species with amnion in connection with the chorion in the placenta?

A

needs to as it is attached to chorion

362
Q

what happens in polytoccus animals (e.g. pigs)?

A

each fetus must rupture its amniotic membrane during birth as allantois is separate and there is no anastomosis

363
Q

what are the 3 main types of contraceptive used in humans?

A

hormonal
barrier method
intrauterine devices

364
Q

what types of hormonal contraception are there?

A

pill
patch
injection
hormonal IUD

365
Q

what is the role of hormonal contraceptives?

A

prevent ovulation
thicken cervical mucus
thin endometrial lining

366
Q

how do hormonal contraceptives prevent ovulation?

A

high level of progesterone (and oestrogen) prevent the release of GnRH, FSH and LH from the pituitary gland

367
Q

what are the main barrier methods of contraception?

A

diaphragm/cap
male condom (most effective with spermicides)
female condom
spermicides

368
Q

what are the two types of intrauterine device?

A

copper

hormonal

369
Q

how do copper IUDs prevent pregnancy?

A

inhibit sperm motility and prevent them from traveling through the cervical mucus. Presence inhibits implantation of embryo

370
Q

how do hormonal IUDs prevent pregnancy?

A

thickens cervical mucus and thins endometrial lining. Presence inhibits implantation of embryo

371
Q

how can IUDs be used in cattle?

A

synchronising breeding cycles of the herd

372
Q

how does progesterone IUD synchronise pregnancy in cattle?

A

imitates corpus luteum by releasing progesterone which suppresses the release of GnRH and therefore FSH and LH. Once IUD is removed levels of these hormones increase stimulating ovulation 2-3 days later in all cows

373
Q

what happens during vasectomy?

A

small section of ductus defrens is removed

374
Q

what effect does vasectomy have on sexual behavior?

A

maintained just unsuccessful

375
Q

what animals is vasectomy commonly used in?

A

humans, zoo animals, ferrets and rams

376
Q

why is vasectomy difficult to reverse?

A

any interaction of sperm with blood will result in an autoimmune response and destruction of sperm leading to infertility

377
Q

what happens during castration?

A

testis are removed bilaterally

378
Q

what is decreased through castration?

A

sexual behaviors and aggression due to removal of androgen source
prostate cancer risk

379
Q

when can lambs and piglets be castrated?

A

in the first few days after birth

380
Q

how can lambs and pigs be castrated?

A

blocking off blood supply to testis

381
Q

what is the benefit of early castration of lambs and pigs?

A

males and females can be kept together for longer
production of testosterone can alter taste of meat
alters behavior and makes flock/herd easier to manage

382
Q

what happens during ovohysterectomy?

A

ovaries and uterus are removed

383
Q

what are the benefits of ovohysterectomy?

A

eliminates signs of oestrus

decreases risk of ovarian cysts and mammary tumors

384
Q

when should ovohysterectomy be performed ideally to have full benefits?

A

before 1st season will prevent mammary tumors

385
Q

what is complex about ovohysterectomy?

A

ovarian, uterine and vaginal arteries must be tied off carefully to prevent internal bleeding

386
Q

what happens during intra uterine insemination?

A

sperm is concentrated and placed in to catheter. Catheter passed into uterus and sperm injected just after ovulation (natural cycle or induced)

387
Q

what is AI used for?

A

creation of a more effective ejaculate due to concentration of sperm
timing can maximise chance of pregnancy
used to improve breeding success and reduce injuries in animals
wide range of semen (think equine breeding)

X Anatomy 1B (5 decks)

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