Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM


Top Flashcards (Certified)
All Flashcards

X Anatomy 1B > Control of Body Function > Flashcards

Control of Body Function Flashcards

(240 cards)

Start Studying
1
Q

in evolution what does common ancestry account for?

A

similarities

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

in evolution what do adaptive modifications account for?

A

most differences

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

define speciation

A

process by which individuals from a single population diverge enough to be considered 2 or more distinct populations which no longer conform to a single species definition

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

what makes identification of species more difficult?

A

species hybrids which produce offspring that are fertile

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

define a species

A

populations that can no longer exchange genes/interbreed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

what are the causes of species no longer being able to exchange genes/interbreed?

A

anatomical compatibility
behavioral isolation
spatial isolation
separated in time

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

what is homology?

A

structures which come from the same embryological origin. They do not necessarily serve the same function

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

what is analogy?

A

structures with the same function but different embryological origins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

define convergent evolution

A

two species with similar structures that are derived from different areas but appear related/the same

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

define biome

A

worlds major communities of living things

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

what do biomes contain?

A

multiple habitats and may niches

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

define habitat

A

specific neighborhood where an animal is found

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

what is included within a habitat?

A

all living and non-living factors or conditions of the environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

define niche

A

environmental conditions and resources that define the requirements of a species to practice it’s way of life, particularly for its population to persist

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

define generalist

A

survive in a wide range of circumstances and make use of a variety of resources

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

define specialist

A

narrower range of conditions and resources but are able to use these more effectively than other species

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

what is competitive exclusion?

A

two species are unable to co-exist when competing for identical resources

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

what is evolutionary convergence?

A

animals in similar circumstances will evolve similar structures to solve similar problems even if the origins are very different

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

how is heat loss prevented in penguins feet?

A

counter current flow so blood in the foot is cold and then warmed by descending blood on it way back to the body. Keeps the body temperature elevated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

define extinction

A

where a species no longer exists

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

what is a mass extinction event?

A

one where a large number of species go extinct in a short period of geological time - very rare

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

what is done with living species to monitor extinction?

A

monitored by ICUN to establish risk of extinction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

what list are threatened species put on by ICUN?

A

red list

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

what are the 7 categories used by the ICUN to identify species status?

A 
least concern
near threatened
vulnerable
endangered
critically endangered
extinct in the wild
extinct
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
what are 5 main reasons that species become extinct?
``` competition loss of prey human activity natural disasters climate change ```
26
what is much of the information about extinct animals gained from?
fossilisation
27
what can be used from fossils to suggest function?
size, shape and extent of bony features
28
what is prehension?
act of bringing food into the oral cavity
29
what are the two areas of the mouth which may be used for prehension?
lips | tongue
30
what cranial nerve innervates prehensile lips?
facial nerve (CNVII)
31
what does the facial nerve (CNVII) control?
muscles of facial expression
32
what cranial nerve innervates prehensile tongue?
hypoglossal nerve (CNXII)
33
what does the hypoglossal nerve (CNXII) control?
muscles of the tongue
34
what is mastication?
chewing food
35
what nerve controls the muscles of mastication?
trigeminal nerve (CNV)
36
what is salivation?
the production and secretion of saliva
37
what is salivary gland stimulation primarily secreted by?
parasympathetic neurons
38
what is salivation initiated by?
tactile stimulus in the mouth taste thoughts of food sensation of hunger
39
what 2 cranial nerves control salivation?
facial (CNVII) | glossopharyngeal (CNIX)
40
what cranial nerve controls the parotid gland via the otic ganglion?
glossopharyngeal (CNIX)
41
how many phases are involved in swallowing?
3
42
what are the 3 phases of swallowing?
voluntary pharyngeal oesophageal
43
what happens during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing?
soft palate rises to block of nasopharynx | pharynx and larynx elevate to accept bolus of food
44
what happens during the voluntary phase of swallowing?
tongue moves bolus of food to the back of the mouth
45
what nerve controls the voluntary phase of swallowing?
hypoglossal nerve (CNXII)
46
what nerve controls the soft palate rising to block of nasopharynx during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing?
vagus nerve (CNX)
47
what nerve controls the pharynx and larynx elevating to accept bolus of food during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing?
glossopharyngeal (CNIX) and vagus nerve (CNX)
48
what do constrictors do during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing?
contract in sequence to move food bolus towards oesophagus
49
what nerve controls constrictors during the pharyngeal phase?
vagus nerve (CNX)
50
what does the epiglottis do during the pharyngeal phase?
covers opening of larynx due to force of bolus
51
what happens during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing to the upper oesophageal sphincter?
relaxes so bolus moves into the oesophagus
52
where is the enteric nervous system found?
throughout the GI tract
53
what do submucosal plexi regulate?
local fluid and hormone release
54
what do myenteric plexi regulate?
motility and muscle action
55
what happens during the oesophageal phase of swallowing?
food in the oesophagus stimulates the myenteric plexus | peristaltic movements move bolus to stomach
56
what is the gag reflex?
protective mechansim
57
what nerve is sensory information for the gag reflex controlled by?
glossopharyngeal nerve
58
what nerve is motor information for the gag reflex controlled by?
vagus
59
what is the role of the gag reflex?
prevents objects entering the pharynx in an uncontrolled way
60
what stimuli cause increased gastric secretions?
taste, smell, thought of food or feeling food in the mouth
61
what nerve causes increased gastric secretions?
vagus nerve
62
what is the effect of the vagus nerve increasing gastric secretions?
hormones are released which further increase gastric secretions (positive feedback)
63
what other factor increases gastric secretions?
distention of the stomach
64
what does distention of the stomach cause?
increased vagus stimulation which also increases secretions
65
what happens when chyme enters the duodenum from the stomach?
stimulation of the release of various hormones
66
what causes bile secretions from the liver and contraction of the gall bladder?
hormones released by presence of chyme into the duodenum | vagus nerve signalling
67
what do distention of the stomach and presence of chyme into the duodenum stimulate?
mass movement of contents of the bowel towards the rectum
68
what happens when faeces distend the rectum?
local reflexes increase contractions of the colon and rectum as well as relaxing internal anal sphincter
69
where does distention of the rectum send sensory signals?
sacral region of spinal cord
70
through what nerve does distention of the rectum send sensory signals?
pelvic nerve
71
what does sensory signals from the rectum to the sacral region of spinal cord cause?
colon to contract and internal anal sphincter to relax
72
what nerve controls the voluntary aspect of defecation?
pudendal nerve
73
what does the pudendal nerve control?
external anal sphincter
74
what tracts regulate defecation reflex centre?
descending
75
what nerve gives voluntary control of the external urethral sphincter?
pudendal
76
describe neuronal control of erection in a musculocavernous penis
sexual thoughts/mating signals or sensory stimulation of the penis stimulate the sacral region of the spinal cord pelvic parasympathetic nerves cause vasodilation of the arteries in erectile bodies. Veins are compressed reducing outflow
77
what do pelvic parasympathetic nerves cause during musculocavernous erection?
pelvic parasympathetic nerves cause vasodilation of the arteries in erectile bodies. Veins are compressed reducing outflow
78
what do sexual thoughts/mating signals or sensory stimulation of the penis stimulate?
sacral region of the spinal cord
79
what type of muscle is found within retractor penis muscle?
smooth and skeletal
80
describe neuronal control of erection in a fibroelastic penis
decreased sympathetic tone relaxes smooth muscle allowing sigmoid flexure to straighten and erection to be achieved
81
when is stimulation of sympathetic centres in the spinal cord increased?
as sexual tension increases
82
what does increase in sympathetic centre stimulation cause during erection?
seminal vesicles and prostate to release seminal fluid
83
what leads to semen being present in prostatic urethra?
peristaltic contraction of ductus defrens
84
what is the effect of semen in the prostatic urethra?
sends sensory information to the spinal cord
85
what is the role of sympathetic nerves in neuronal control of ejaculation?
internal urinary sphincter closes to prevent retroejaculation or release of urine
86
what is the role of pudendal nerves in neuronal control of ejaculation?
cause rhythmic contraction of muscles at the base of the penis to expel semen
87
what are the glands of the body which secrete hormones?
``` pituitary pineal thyroid thymus adrenal pancreas ovaries/testis ```
88
how long does the response of hormones take and their effect last?
slower than neurons but last longer
89
what is the difference between exocrine and endocrine secretion?
exocrine secretions are released via duct onto skin/into organ endocrine secretions of hormones are straight into the blood stream
90
what are the 3 stimulants of hormone release?
humoral - molecules in the blood neuronal hormonal - other hormones
91
which of the endocrine glands in the body also have exocrine function?
pancreas | ovaries/testis
92
where is the pituitary gland located?
the base of the brain
93
how is the pituitary gland connected to the hypothalamus?
infundibulum
94
what are the 2 parts of the pituitary gland?
anterior and posterior
95
what makes the posterior pituitary neuronal?
extension of the hypothalamus
96
how are hormones released from the posterior pituitary?
stimuli increases or decreases action potential in hypothalamic neurons action potentials are conducted down neurones to the posterior pituitary hormones stored in the axon terminals are released into the blood
97
give 2 examples of hormones released from the posterior pituitary
ADH | oxytocin
98
what sort of tissue makes up the anterior pituitary?
glandular
99
how are hormones released from the anterior pituitary?
hypothalamic neurones release inhibitory or releasing hormones hormones flow through hypophaseal portal circulation to anterior pituitary they pass into the pituitary cells and stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones into the blood
100
give 4 examples of hormones released from the anterior pituitary
prolactin LH FSH growth hormone
101
what is the role of ADH?
decreases urine output by acting on kidney tubules to increase water reabsorption and so reduce plasma osmolality and increasing blood volume
102
how is ADH released from the posterior pituitary?
changes in osmolality or blood pressure are detected by osmo and baroreceptors increased osmolality or decreased BP increase action potentials in ADH neurones action potential is passed to the posterior pituitary ADH is released into the blood
103
what stimulates the release of oxytocin?
stretch of uterus/cervix or stimulation of nipples
104
what is the role of oxytocin?
increase uterine contraction and milk release
105
how is oxytocin released from the posterior pituitary?
stimulation causes increase in action potentials in oxytocin neurones action potentials pass to posterior pituitary oxytocin is released in blood
106
what is the role of prolactin?
increases milk production
107
how is prolactin released from the anterior pituitary?
suckling baby initiates sensory nerve pathway to hypothalamus releases hormones to the anterior pituitary leading to prolactin release
108
where is FSH released from?
anterior pituitary
109
what is the role of FSH?
stimulation of follicogenesis and oestrogen production
110
what does oestrogen cause?
thickening of endometrium and secretion of LH (and FSH) at the correct time
111
what is the role of the LH surge?
causes ovulation and corpus luteum development
112
what is produced by the corpus luteum?
progesterone
113
what is the role of progesterone?
maintains endometrium and negatively feeds back to hypothalamus and so reduces LH and FSH production
114
what makes ovaries endocrine organs?
release of oestrogen and progesterone
115
what does FSH stimulate in men?
Sertoli cells to increase spermatogenesis
116
what does LH stimulate in men?
interstitial cells of testis to secrete testosterone
117
what does testosterone stimulate?
Sertoli cells as well as developing sex organs and secondary sexual characteristics
118
what hormone inhibits LH and FSH release?
testosterone
119
what hormone inhibits FSH secretion?
inhibin
120
where are Leydig/interstitial cells located?
in surrounding connective tissue in testis
121
where are Sertoli/Sustentacular cells located?
in semiphorous tubule of the testis
122
where are germ cells cells located in the testis?
immature cells at the periphery and mature as the reach the lumen
123
what does the pineal gland manufacture and release?
melatonin
124
how is melatonin released from the pineal gland?
light enters the eye | signals to the hypothalamus which sends impulses via sympathetic neurones to the pineal gland
125
what effect does light have on pineal gland stimulation?
increased light = reduced signals | decreased light = increased signals
126
what is the role of melatonin?
helps control sleep/wake cycles | affects FSH and LH release from anterior pituitary
127
why is the pineal gland larger in sheep than in humans?
as it controls the seasonal breeding patterns
128
where is the thyroid gland positioned in the body?
anterior to the first few tracheal rings
129
what is the thyroid gland comprised of?
2 lobes connected by an isthmus
130
what does the thyroid gland contain?
follicles with walls made from follicular cells (simple cuboidal epithelium)
131
what are follicles filled with?
thyroglobulin (thyroid hormone precursor)
132
what cells sit between follicles?
parafollicular cells
133
what hormones do the follicular cells release?
T3 and T4 (thyroxine)
134
what hormones do the parafollicular cells release?
calcitonin
135
what is the role of calcitonin?
decreases Ca2+ levels in the blood
136
how are thyroid hormones released from the thyroid gland?
in response to stressors/hypothermia releasing hormones travel from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary TSH is released from the anterior pituitary
137
what is the role of TSH?
increased synthesis of T3 and T4
138
what is the role of T3 and T4?
act on target tissues to increase metabolism, increase body temperature and increase normal growth and development
139
what reduces TSH and releasing hormone production?
negative feedback
140
how many parathyroid glands are there?
4 positioned on the posterior surface of thyroid gland
141
what do parathyroid glands secrete?
parathyroid hormone
142
what is the role of parathyroid hormone?
increases Ca2+ levels in the blood through action on bone, kidney and small intestine
143
where are the adrenal glands positioned in humans?
superior/cranial pole of each kidney
144
what are the adrenal glands formed of?
central medulla and outer cortex
145
what is released from the adrenal medulla?
adrenaline and noradrenaline
146
what stimulates the hypothalamus to release adrenaline and noradrenaline?
stress, physical activity and low blood sugar
147
how are adrenaline and noradrenaline released from the medulla?
hypothalamus is stimulated, leads to sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal medulla.
148
what are the effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline?
increased blood glucose increased heart rate increased blood flow to muscles reduced blood flow to gut and skin
149
what type of hormones are released from the adrenal cortex?
steroid
150
what are 3 examples of hormones secreted from the adrenal cortex?
aldosterone cortisol androgens
151
when is aldosterone secreted?
when blood volume is low
152
what is the main role of aldosterone?
water retention to increase blood volume
153
what are the 2 main effects of cortisol?
increased protein and lipid breakdown and glucose production | reduced immune response and inflammation
154
what is the role of androgens?
responsible for male secondary sex characteristics and promotes axillary and pubic hair growth in females
155
where is the thymus located?
in the neck and cranial/superior thorax
156
what does the thymus release?
thymosin
157
what is the role of thymosin?
development of the immune system
158
what happens to the thymus as the animal matures?
it regresses
159
what are the 2 main functions of the pancreas?
endocrine | exocrine
160
what is the endocrine function of the pancreas controlled by?
ANS, digestive hormones and levels of blood nutrients
161
what is produced in pancreatic islets?
glucagon and insulin
162
where in the pancreas is glucagon produced?
alpha cells
163
what is the effect of glucagon?
increase blood glucose levels
164
where in the pancreas is insulin produced?
beta cells
165
what is the effect of insulin?
reduce blood sugar levels
166
what is involved in the exocrine function of the pancreas?
exocrine cells secrete digestive enzymes
167
what is the role of gastrin?
increases stomach secretions
168
what is the role of secretin?
decreases gastric motility and secretions
169
what effect does secretin have on the pancreas?
stimulates production of alkaline secretions
170
what is gastrin release stimulated by?
distention of the stomach and presence of digesta
171
what is the role of cholecystokinin?
decreases gastric motility
172
what effect does secretin have on the liver?
increases bile secretion
173
what effect does cholecystokinin have on the pancreas?
stimulates release of gastric enzymes
174
what effect does cholecystokinin have on the gallbladder?
stimulates release of bile from gall bladder
175
what is the origin of a muscle?
attachment to the stationary end of a muscle
176
what is the belly of a muscle?
thicker middle region of muscle
177
what is the insertion of a muscle?
attachment to the mobile end of muscle
178
how can the muscle action be predicted?
origin and insertion joints and regions the muscle crosses muscle fibre orientation
179
what can functional muscle groups/compartments tell us?
about innervation as each group/compartment is innervated by specific nerves
180
what can functional muscle groups/compartments be catergorised by?
location or function
181
what are the 4 compartments of the upper/thoracic limbs in anatomical position?
anterior compartment of upper arm posterior compartment of upper arm anterior compartment of forearm posterior compartment of forearm
182
what is the function of the anterior compartment of upper arm?
elbow flexors
183
what is the function of the posterior compartment of upper arm?
elbow extensors
184
what is the function of the anterior compartment of forearm?
carpal and digit flexors
185
what is the function of the posterior compartment of forearm?
carpal and digit extensors
186
what are the 5 compartments of the lower/hind limbs (pelvic limbs)?
``` anterior compartment of the thigh medial compartment of the thigh posterior compartment of the thigh anterior compartment of the leg posterior compartment of the leg ```
187
what is the function of the anterior compartment of the thigh?
knee (stifle) extensors
188
what is the function of the medial compartment of the thigh?
thigh adductors
189
what is the function of the posterior compartment of the thigh?
knee (stifle) flexors
190
what is the function of the anterior compartment of the leg?
dorsiflex the ankle (flex hock) and extend digits
191
what is the function of the posterior compartment of the leg?
plantiflex the ankle (extend hock) and flex digits
192
what are dermatomes?
area of skin supplied by one single pair of spinal nerves
193
what are myotomes?
group of muscles supplied by one single pair of spinal nerves
194
what are spinal cord swellings also known as?
intumescence
195
where on the spinal cord is it enlarged?
cervical and lumbosacral region due to limbs
196
what does plexi mean?
network
197
what are the 2 main plexi in the body?
brachial plexus | lumbosacral plexus
198
where does the sciatic nerve originate?
lumbosacral plexus
199
what part of the leg does the sciatic nerve innervate?
posterior compartment of thigh
200
what muscles does the sciatic nerve innervate?
knee and stifle flexors
201
what part of the leg does the obturator nerve innervate?
medial thigh
202
what muscles does the obturator nerve innervate?
adductors of thigh
203
what part of the leg does the femoral nerve innervate?
anterior compartment of thigh
204
what muscles does the femoral nerve innervate?
knee/stifle extensors
205
what part of the thoracic limb does the musculocutaneous nerve innervate?
anterior compartment of upper arms
206
what muscles does the musculocutaneous nerve innervate?
elbow flexors
207
what part of the leg does the fibular/peroneal nerve innervate?
anterior compartment of leg
208
what muscles does the fibular/peroneal nerve innervate?
flexor of hock and extensor of digits
209
what part of the leg does the tibial nerve innervate?
posterior compartment of leg
210
what muscles does the tibial nerve innervate?
extensor of hock and flexor of digits
211
what part of the thoracic limb does the radial nerve innervate?
posterior compartment of upper arm
212
what muscles does the radial nerve innervate?
extensors of elbow
213
what part of the thoracic limb does the medial/ulnar nerve innervate?
forearm/hand and distal forelimb
214
what muscles does the medial/ulnar nerve innervate?
flexors of carpus and digits
215
what is the role of the prefrontal area of the brain?
controls motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movements
216
what is the role of the premotor area of the brain?
organising motor functions before they are initiated in the primary motor cortex
217
what is the role of the primary motor cortex in the brain?
initiation and control of voluntary movements
218
what is the name of the landmark in the brain that the primary motor cortex is rostral to?
central sulcus
219
what is the central sulcus known as in dogs?
cruciate sulcus
220
where are upper motor neurones located?
completely contained within the CNS
221
where are the cell bodies of upper motor neurones located?
in the cerebral cortex
222
what is the role of upper motor neurones?
initiate voluntary movement maintain muscle tone regulate posture
223
where do lower motor neurones run to?
skeletal muscle
224
where are the cell bodies of lower motor neurones located?
ventral horn of spinal cord or cranial nerve nuclei
225
where do the axons of lower motor nerves project into?
PNS via cranial or spinal nerves
226
where do lower motor neurones connect with muscle?
neuromuscular junction
227
what are descending tracts?
pathways by which motor signals are sent from the brain to lower motor neurons
228
what are ascending tracts?
pathways by which sensory signals are sent from sensory receptors to the brain
229
what do descending tracts contain axons from?
cerebrum or cerebellum
230
what are the 2 groups of descending tract?
pyramidal system | extra-pyramidal system
231
where do the pyramidal systems run through?
medullary pyramids
232
what is controlled by pyramidal systems?
complex, learned, voluntary movements | high degree of fine motor control
233
what is controlled by the extrapyramidal system?
maintaining and changing posture rhythmical activities semi-automatic activities (e.g. feeding)
234
what is the role of the cerebellum and basal nuclei?
regulate motor systems to ensure coordinated action
235
what are the main areas controlled by the cerebellum?
posture muscle tone balance fine motor coordination (comparance) planning and practicing rapid, complex motor actions coordination of all somatic motor activities
236
in what species is the cerebellum:cerebrum ratio smaller?
animals with complex gait cycles
237
what are the basal nuclei formed of?
functionally related nuclei in the cerebrum , diencephalon and midbrain
238
what is the individual role of the basal nuclei?
planning, organising and coordinating, movement/posture
239
what does the basal nuclei form with other areas of the CNS?
stimulatory and inhibitory feedback loops
240
is the basal nuclei involved with balance?
no

X Anatomy 1B (5 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions