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X Anatomy 1B > Control of Body Function > Flashcards

Control of Body Function Flashcards

1
Q

in evolution what does common ancestry account for?

A

similarities

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2
Q

in evolution what do adaptive modifications account for?

A

most differences

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3
Q

define speciation

A

process by which individuals from a single population diverge enough to be considered 2 or more distinct populations which no longer conform to a single species definition

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4
Q

what makes identification of species more difficult?

A

species hybrids which produce offspring that are fertile

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5
Q

define a species

A

populations that can no longer exchange genes/interbreed

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6
Q

what are the causes of species no longer being able to exchange genes/interbreed?

A

anatomical compatibility
behavioral isolation
spatial isolation
separated in time

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7
Q

what is homology?

A

structures which come from the same embryological origin. They do not necessarily serve the same function

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8
Q

what is analogy?

A

structures with the same function but different embryological origins

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9
Q

define convergent evolution

A

two species with similar structures that are derived from different areas but appear related/the same

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10
Q

define biome

A

worlds major communities of living things

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11
Q

what do biomes contain?

A

multiple habitats and may niches

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12
Q

define habitat

A

specific neighborhood where an animal is found

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13
Q

what is included within a habitat?

A

all living and non-living factors or conditions of the environment

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14
Q

define niche

A

environmental conditions and resources that define the requirements of a species to practice it’s way of life, particularly for its population to persist

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15
Q

define generalist

A

survive in a wide range of circumstances and make use of a variety of resources

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16
Q

define specialist

A

narrower range of conditions and resources but are able to use these more effectively than other species

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17
Q

what is competitive exclusion?

A

two species are unable to co-exist when competing for identical resources

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18
Q

what is evolutionary convergence?

A

animals in similar circumstances will evolve similar structures to solve similar problems even if the origins are very different

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19
Q

how is heat loss prevented in penguins feet?

A

counter current flow so blood in the foot is cold and then warmed by descending blood on it way back to the body. Keeps the body temperature elevated

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20
Q

define extinction

A

where a species no longer exists

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21
Q

what is a mass extinction event?

A

one where a large number of species go extinct in a short period of geological time - very rare

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22
Q

what is done with living species to monitor extinction?

A

monitored by ICUN to establish risk of extinction

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23
Q

what list are threatened species put on by ICUN?

A

red list

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24
Q

what are the 7 categories used by the ICUN to identify species status?

A 
least concern
near threatened
vulnerable
endangered
critically endangered
extinct in the wild
extinct
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25
Q

what are 5 main reasons that species become extinct?

A 
competition
loss of prey
human activity
natural disasters
climate change
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26
Q

what is much of the information about extinct animals gained from?

A

fossilisation

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27
Q

what can be used from fossils to suggest function?

A

size, shape and extent of bony features

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28
Q

what is prehension?

A

act of bringing food into the oral cavity

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29
Q

what are the two areas of the mouth which may be used for prehension?

A

lips

tongue

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30
Q

what cranial nerve innervates prehensile lips?

A

facial nerve (CNVII)

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31
Q

what does the facial nerve (CNVII) control?

A

muscles of facial expression

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32
Q

what cranial nerve innervates prehensile tongue?

A

hypoglossal nerve (CNXII)

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33
Q

what does the hypoglossal nerve (CNXII) control?

A

muscles of the tongue

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34
Q

what is mastication?

A

chewing food

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35
Q

what nerve controls the muscles of mastication?

A

trigeminal nerve (CNV)

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36
Q

what is salivation?

A

the production and secretion of saliva

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37
Q

what is salivary gland stimulation primarily secreted by?

A

parasympathetic neurons

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38
Q

what is salivation initiated by?

A

tactile stimulus in the mouth
taste
thoughts of food
sensation of hunger

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39
Q

what 2 cranial nerves control salivation?

A

facial (CNVII)

glossopharyngeal (CNIX)

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40
Q

what cranial nerve controls the parotid gland via the otic ganglion?

A

glossopharyngeal (CNIX)

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41
Q

how many phases are involved in swallowing?

A

3

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42
Q

what are the 3 phases of swallowing?

A

voluntary
pharyngeal
oesophageal

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43
Q

what happens during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing?

A

soft palate rises to block of nasopharynx

pharynx and larynx elevate to accept bolus of food

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44
Q

what happens during the voluntary phase of swallowing?

A

tongue moves bolus of food to the back of the mouth

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45
Q

what nerve controls the voluntary phase of swallowing?

A

hypoglossal nerve (CNXII)

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46
Q

what nerve controls the soft palate rising to block of nasopharynx during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing?

A

vagus nerve (CNX)

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47
Q

what nerve controls the pharynx and larynx elevating to accept bolus of food during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing?

A

glossopharyngeal (CNIX) and vagus nerve (CNX)

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48
Q

what do constrictors do during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing?

A

contract in sequence to move food bolus towards oesophagus

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49
Q

what nerve controls constrictors during the pharyngeal phase?

A

vagus nerve (CNX)

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50
Q

what does the epiglottis do during the pharyngeal phase?

A

covers opening of larynx due to force of bolus

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51
Q

what happens during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing to the upper oesophageal sphincter?

A

relaxes so bolus moves into the oesophagus

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52
Q

where is the enteric nervous system found?

A

throughout the GI tract

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53
Q

what do submucosal plexi regulate?

A

local fluid and hormone release

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54
Q

what do myenteric plexi regulate?

A

motility and muscle action

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55
Q

what happens during the oesophageal phase of swallowing?

A

food in the oesophagus stimulates the myenteric plexus

peristaltic movements move bolus to stomach

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56
Q

what is the gag reflex?

A

protective mechansim

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57
Q

what nerve is sensory information for the gag reflex controlled by?

A

glossopharyngeal nerve

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58
Q

what nerve is motor information for the gag reflex controlled by?

A

vagus

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59
Q

what is the role of the gag reflex?

A

prevents objects entering the pharynx in an uncontrolled way

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60
Q

what stimuli cause increased gastric secretions?

A

taste, smell, thought of food or feeling food in the mouth

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61
Q

what nerve causes increased gastric secretions?

A

vagus nerve

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62
Q

what is the effect of the vagus nerve increasing gastric secretions?

A

hormones are released which further increase gastric secretions (positive feedback)

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63
Q

what other factor increases gastric secretions?

A

distention of the stomach

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64
Q

what does distention of the stomach cause?

A

increased vagus stimulation which also increases secretions

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65
Q

what happens when chyme enters the duodenum from the stomach?

A

stimulation of the release of various hormones

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66
Q

what causes bile secretions from the liver and contraction of the gall bladder?

A

hormones released by presence of chyme into the duodenum

vagus nerve signalling

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67
Q

what do distention of the stomach and presence of chyme into the duodenum stimulate?

A

mass movement of contents of the bowel towards the rectum

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68
Q

what happens when faeces distend the rectum?

A

local reflexes increase contractions of the colon and rectum as well as relaxing internal anal sphincter

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69
Q

where does distention of the rectum send sensory signals?

A

sacral region of spinal cord

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70
Q

through what nerve does distention of the rectum send sensory signals?

A

pelvic nerve

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71
Q

what does sensory signals from the rectum to the sacral region of spinal cord cause?

A

colon to contract and internal anal sphincter to relax

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72
Q

what nerve controls the voluntary aspect of defecation?

A

pudendal nerve

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73
Q

what does the pudendal nerve control?

A

external anal sphincter

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74
Q

what tracts regulate defecation reflex centre?

A

descending

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75
Q

what nerve gives voluntary control of the external urethral sphincter?

A

pudendal

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76
Q

describe neuronal control of erection in a musculocavernous penis

A

sexual thoughts/mating signals or sensory stimulation of the penis stimulate the sacral region of the spinal cord
pelvic parasympathetic nerves cause vasodilation of the arteries in erectile bodies. Veins are compressed reducing outflow

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77
Q

what do pelvic parasympathetic nerves cause during musculocavernous erection?

A

pelvic parasympathetic nerves cause vasodilation of the arteries in erectile bodies. Veins are compressed reducing outflow

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78
Q

what do sexual thoughts/mating signals or sensory stimulation of the penis stimulate?

A

sacral region of the spinal cord

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79
Q

what type of muscle is found within retractor penis muscle?

A

smooth and skeletal

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80
Q

describe neuronal control of erection in a fibroelastic penis

A

decreased sympathetic tone relaxes smooth muscle allowing sigmoid flexure to straighten and erection to be achieved

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81
Q

when is stimulation of sympathetic centres in the spinal cord increased?

A

as sexual tension increases

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82
Q

what does increase in sympathetic centre stimulation cause during erection?

A

seminal vesicles and prostate to release seminal fluid

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83
Q

what leads to semen being present in prostatic urethra?

A

peristaltic contraction of ductus defrens

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84
Q

what is the effect of semen in the prostatic urethra?

A

sends sensory information to the spinal cord

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85
Q

what is the role of sympathetic nerves in neuronal control of ejaculation?

A

internal urinary sphincter closes to prevent retroejaculation or release of urine

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86
Q

what is the role of pudendal nerves in neuronal control of ejaculation?

A

cause rhythmic contraction of muscles at the base of the penis to expel semen

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87
Q

what are the glands of the body which secrete hormones?

A 
pituitary
pineal
thyroid
thymus
adrenal
pancreas
ovaries/testis
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88
Q

how long does the response of hormones take and their effect last?

A

slower than neurons but last longer

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89
Q

what is the difference between exocrine and endocrine secretion?

A

exocrine secretions are released via duct onto skin/into organ
endocrine secretions of hormones are straight into the blood stream

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90
Q

what are the 3 stimulants of hormone release?

A

humoral - molecules in the blood
neuronal
hormonal - other hormones

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91
Q

which of the endocrine glands in the body also have exocrine function?

A

pancreas

ovaries/testis

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92
Q

where is the pituitary gland located?

A

the base of the brain

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93
Q

how is the pituitary gland connected to the hypothalamus?

A

infundibulum

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94
Q

what are the 2 parts of the pituitary gland?

A

anterior and posterior

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95
Q

what makes the posterior pituitary neuronal?

A

extension of the hypothalamus

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96
Q

how are hormones released from the posterior pituitary?

A

stimuli increases or decreases action potential in hypothalamic neurons
action potentials are conducted down neurones to the posterior pituitary
hormones stored in the axon terminals are released into the blood

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97
Q

give 2 examples of hormones released from the posterior pituitary

A

ADH

oxytocin

98
Q

what sort of tissue makes up the anterior pituitary?

A

glandular

99
Q

how are hormones released from the anterior pituitary?

A

hypothalamic neurones release inhibitory or releasing hormones
hormones flow through hypophaseal portal circulation to anterior pituitary
they pass into the pituitary cells and stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones into the blood

100
Q

give 4 examples of hormones released from the anterior pituitary

A

prolactin
LH
FSH
growth hormone

101
Q

what is the role of ADH?

A

decreases urine output by acting on kidney tubules to increase water reabsorption and so reduce plasma osmolality and increasing blood volume

102
Q

how is ADH released from the posterior pituitary?

A

changes in osmolality or blood pressure are detected by osmo and baroreceptors
increased osmolality or decreased BP increase action potentials in ADH neurones
action potential is passed to the posterior pituitary
ADH is released into the blood

103
Q

what stimulates the release of oxytocin?

A

stretch of uterus/cervix or stimulation of nipples

104
Q

what is the role of oxytocin?

A

increase uterine contraction and milk release

105
Q

how is oxytocin released from the posterior pituitary?

A

stimulation causes increase in action potentials in oxytocin neurones
action potentials pass to posterior pituitary
oxytocin is released in blood

106
Q

what is the role of prolactin?

A

increases milk production

107
Q

how is prolactin released from the anterior pituitary?

A

suckling baby initiates sensory nerve pathway to hypothalamus
releases hormones to the anterior pituitary leading to prolactin release

108
Q

where is FSH released from?

A

anterior pituitary

109
Q

what is the role of FSH?

A

stimulation of follicogenesis and oestrogen production

110
Q

what does oestrogen cause?

A

thickening of endometrium and secretion of LH (and FSH) at the correct time

111
Q

what is the role of the LH surge?

A

causes ovulation and corpus luteum development

112
Q

what is produced by the corpus luteum?

A

progesterone

113
Q

what is the role of progesterone?

A

maintains endometrium and negatively feeds back to hypothalamus and so reduces LH and FSH production

114
Q

what makes ovaries endocrine organs?

A

release of oestrogen and progesterone

115
Q

what does FSH stimulate in men?

A

Sertoli cells to increase spermatogenesis

116
Q

what does LH stimulate in men?

A

interstitial cells of testis to secrete testosterone

117
Q

what does testosterone stimulate?

A

Sertoli cells as well as developing sex organs and secondary sexual characteristics

118
Q

what hormone inhibits LH and FSH release?

A

testosterone

119
Q

what hormone inhibits FSH secretion?

A

inhibin

120
Q

where are Leydig/interstitial cells located?

A

in surrounding connective tissue in testis

121
Q

where are Sertoli/Sustentacular cells located?

A

in semiphorous tubule of the testis

122
Q

where are germ cells cells located in the testis?

A

immature cells at the periphery and mature as the reach the lumen

123
Q

what does the pineal gland manufacture and release?

A

melatonin

124
Q

how is melatonin released from the pineal gland?

A

light enters the eye

signals to the hypothalamus which sends impulses via sympathetic neurones to the pineal gland

125
Q

what effect does light have on pineal gland stimulation?

A

increased light = reduced signals

decreased light = increased signals

126
Q

what is the role of melatonin?

A

helps control sleep/wake cycles

affects FSH and LH release from anterior pituitary

127
Q

why is the pineal gland larger in sheep than in humans?

A

as it controls the seasonal breeding patterns

128
Q

where is the thyroid gland positioned in the body?

A

anterior to the first few tracheal rings

129
Q

what is the thyroid gland comprised of?

A

2 lobes connected by an isthmus

130
Q

what does the thyroid gland contain?

A

follicles with walls made from follicular cells (simple cuboidal epithelium)

131
Q

what are follicles filled with?

A

thyroglobulin (thyroid hormone precursor)

132
Q

what cells sit between follicles?

A

parafollicular cells

133
Q

what hormones do the follicular cells release?

A

T3 and T4 (thyroxine)

134
Q

what hormones do the parafollicular cells release?

A

calcitonin

135
Q

what is the role of calcitonin?

A

decreases Ca2+ levels in the blood

136
Q

how are thyroid hormones released from the thyroid gland?

A

in response to stressors/hypothermia releasing hormones travel from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
TSH is released from the anterior pituitary

137
Q

what is the role of TSH?

A

increased synthesis of T3 and T4

138
Q

what is the role of T3 and T4?

A

act on target tissues to increase metabolism, increase body temperature and increase normal growth and development

139
Q

what reduces TSH and releasing hormone production?

A

negative feedback

140
Q

how many parathyroid glands are there?

A

4 positioned on the posterior surface of thyroid gland

141
Q

what do parathyroid glands secrete?

A

parathyroid hormone

142
Q

what is the role of parathyroid hormone?

A

increases Ca2+ levels in the blood through action on bone, kidney and small intestine

143
Q

where are the adrenal glands positioned in humans?

A

superior/cranial pole of each kidney

144
Q

what are the adrenal glands formed of?

A

central medulla and outer cortex

145
Q

what is released from the adrenal medulla?

A

adrenaline and noradrenaline

146
Q

what stimulates the hypothalamus to release adrenaline and noradrenaline?

A

stress, physical activity and low blood sugar

147
Q

how are adrenaline and noradrenaline released from the medulla?

A

hypothalamus is stimulated, leads to sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal medulla.

148
Q

what are the effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline?

A

increased blood glucose
increased heart rate
increased blood flow to muscles
reduced blood flow to gut and skin

149
Q

what type of hormones are released from the adrenal cortex?

A

steroid

150
Q

what are 3 examples of hormones secreted from the adrenal cortex?

A

aldosterone
cortisol
androgens

151
Q

when is aldosterone secreted?

A

when blood volume is low

152
Q

what is the main role of aldosterone?

A

water retention to increase blood volume

153
Q

what are the 2 main effects of cortisol?

A

increased protein and lipid breakdown and glucose production

reduced immune response and inflammation

154
Q

what is the role of androgens?

A

responsible for male secondary sex characteristics and promotes axillary and pubic hair growth in females

155
Q

where is the thymus located?

A

in the neck and cranial/superior thorax

156
Q

what does the thymus release?

A

thymosin

157
Q

what is the role of thymosin?

A

development of the immune system

158
Q

what happens to the thymus as the animal matures?

A

it regresses

159
Q

what are the 2 main functions of the pancreas?

A

endocrine

exocrine

160
Q

what is the endocrine function of the pancreas controlled by?

A

ANS, digestive hormones and levels of blood nutrients

161
Q

what is produced in pancreatic islets?

A

glucagon and insulin

162
Q

where in the pancreas is glucagon produced?

A

alpha cells

163
Q

what is the effect of glucagon?

A

increase blood glucose levels

164
Q

where in the pancreas is insulin produced?

A

beta cells

165
Q

what is the effect of insulin?

A

reduce blood sugar levels

166
Q

what is involved in the exocrine function of the pancreas?

A

exocrine cells secrete digestive enzymes

167
Q

what is the role of gastrin?

A

increases stomach secretions

168
Q

what is the role of secretin?

A

decreases gastric motility and secretions

169
Q

what effect does secretin have on the pancreas?

A

stimulates production of alkaline secretions

170
Q

what is gastrin release stimulated by?

A

distention of the stomach and presence of digesta

171
Q

what is the role of cholecystokinin?

A

decreases gastric motility

172
Q

what effect does secretin have on the liver?

A

increases bile secretion

173
Q

what effect does cholecystokinin have on the pancreas?

A

stimulates release of gastric enzymes

174
Q

what effect does cholecystokinin have on the gallbladder?

A

stimulates release of bile from gall bladder

175
Q

what is the origin of a muscle?

A

attachment to the stationary end of a muscle

176
Q

what is the belly of a muscle?

A

thicker middle region of muscle

177
Q

what is the insertion of a muscle?

A

attachment to the mobile end of muscle

178
Q

how can the muscle action be predicted?

A

origin and insertion
joints and regions the muscle crosses
muscle fibre orientation

179
Q

what can functional muscle groups/compartments tell us?

A

about innervation as each group/compartment is innervated by specific nerves

180
Q

what can functional muscle groups/compartments be catergorised by?

A

location or function

181
Q

what are the 4 compartments of the upper/thoracic limbs in anatomical position?

A

anterior compartment of upper arm
posterior compartment of upper arm
anterior compartment of forearm
posterior compartment of forearm

182
Q

what is the function of the anterior compartment of upper arm?

A

elbow flexors

183
Q

what is the function of the posterior compartment of upper arm?

A

elbow extensors

184
Q

what is the function of the anterior compartment of forearm?

A

carpal and digit flexors

185
Q

what is the function of the posterior compartment of forearm?

A

carpal and digit extensors

186
Q

what are the 5 compartments of the lower/hind limbs (pelvic limbs)?

A 
anterior compartment of the thigh
medial compartment of the thigh
posterior compartment of the thigh
anterior compartment of the leg
posterior compartment of the leg
187
Q

what is the function of the anterior compartment of the thigh?

A

knee (stifle) extensors

188
Q

what is the function of the medial compartment of the thigh?

A

thigh adductors

189
Q

what is the function of the posterior compartment of the thigh?

A

knee (stifle) flexors

190
Q

what is the function of the anterior compartment of the leg?

A

dorsiflex the ankle (flex hock) and extend digits

191
Q

what is the function of the posterior compartment of the leg?

A

plantiflex the ankle (extend hock) and flex digits

192
Q

what are dermatomes?

A

area of skin supplied by one single pair of spinal nerves

193
Q

what are myotomes?

A

group of muscles supplied by one single pair of spinal nerves

194
Q

what are spinal cord swellings also known as?

A

intumescence

195
Q

where on the spinal cord is it enlarged?

A

cervical and lumbosacral region due to limbs

196
Q

what does plexi mean?

A

network

197
Q

what are the 2 main plexi in the body?

A

brachial plexus

lumbosacral plexus

198
Q

where does the sciatic nerve originate?

A

lumbosacral plexus

199
Q

what part of the leg does the sciatic nerve innervate?

A

posterior compartment of thigh

200
Q

what muscles does the sciatic nerve innervate?

A

knee and stifle flexors

201
Q

what part of the leg does the obturator nerve innervate?

A

medial thigh

202
Q

what muscles does the obturator nerve innervate?

A

adductors of thigh

203
Q

what part of the leg does the femoral nerve innervate?

A

anterior compartment of thigh

204
Q

what muscles does the femoral nerve innervate?

A

knee/stifle extensors

205
Q

what part of the thoracic limb does the musculocutaneous nerve innervate?

A

anterior compartment of upper arms

206
Q

what muscles does the musculocutaneous nerve innervate?

A

elbow flexors

207
Q

what part of the leg does the fibular/peroneal nerve innervate?

A

anterior compartment of leg

208
Q

what muscles does the fibular/peroneal nerve innervate?

A

flexor of hock and extensor of digits

209
Q

what part of the leg does the tibial nerve innervate?

A

posterior compartment of leg

210
Q

what muscles does the tibial nerve innervate?

A

extensor of hock and flexor of digits

211
Q

what part of the thoracic limb does the radial nerve innervate?

A

posterior compartment of upper arm

212
Q

what muscles does the radial nerve innervate?

A

extensors of elbow

213
Q

what part of the thoracic limb does the medial/ulnar nerve innervate?

A

forearm/hand and distal forelimb

214
Q

what muscles does the medial/ulnar nerve innervate?

A

flexors of carpus and digits

215
Q

what is the role of the prefrontal area of the brain?

A

controls motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movements

216
Q

what is the role of the premotor area of the brain?

A

organising motor functions before they are initiated in the primary motor cortex

217
Q

what is the role of the primary motor cortex in the brain?

A

initiation and control of voluntary movements

218
Q

what is the name of the landmark in the brain that the primary motor cortex is rostral to?

A

central sulcus

219
Q

what is the central sulcus known as in dogs?

A

cruciate sulcus

220
Q

where are upper motor neurones located?

A

completely contained within the CNS

221
Q

where are the cell bodies of upper motor neurones located?

A

in the cerebral cortex

222
Q

what is the role of upper motor neurones?

A

initiate voluntary movement
maintain muscle tone
regulate posture

223
Q

where do lower motor neurones run to?

A

skeletal muscle

224
Q

where are the cell bodies of lower motor neurones located?

A

ventral horn of spinal cord or cranial nerve nuclei

225
Q

where do the axons of lower motor nerves project into?

A

PNS via cranial or spinal nerves

226
Q

where do lower motor neurones connect with muscle?

A

neuromuscular junction

227
Q

what are descending tracts?

A

pathways by which motor signals are sent from the brain to lower motor neurons

228
Q

what are ascending tracts?

A

pathways by which sensory signals are sent from sensory receptors to the brain

229
Q

what do descending tracts contain axons from?

A

cerebrum or cerebellum

230
Q

what are the 2 groups of descending tract?

A

pyramidal system

extra-pyramidal system

231
Q

where do the pyramidal systems run through?

A

medullary pyramids

232
Q

what is controlled by pyramidal systems?

A

complex, learned, voluntary movements

high degree of fine motor control

233
Q

what is controlled by the extrapyramidal system?

A

maintaining and changing posture
rhythmical activities
semi-automatic activities (e.g. feeding)

234
Q

what is the role of the cerebellum and basal nuclei?

A

regulate motor systems to ensure coordinated action

235
Q

what are the main areas controlled by the cerebellum?

A

posture
muscle tone
balance
fine motor coordination (comparance)
planning and practicing rapid, complex motor actions
coordination of all somatic motor activities

236
Q

in what species is the cerebellum:cerebrum ratio smaller?

A

animals with complex gait cycles

237
Q

what are the basal nuclei formed of?

A

functionally related nuclei in the cerebrum , diencephalon and midbrain

238
Q

what is the individual role of the basal nuclei?

A

planning, organising and coordinating, movement/posture

239
Q

what does the basal nuclei form with other areas of the CNS?

A

stimulatory and inhibitory feedback loops

240
Q

is the basal nuclei involved with balance?

A

no

X Anatomy 1B (5 decks)

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