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Biology by Thaidz > Reproduction and Inheritance > Flashcards

Reproduction and Inheritance Flashcards

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1
Q

what are chromosomes?

A

long lengths of DNA coiled up

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2
Q

what are genes?

what do they do?

A

sections of DNA
chemical ‘instructions’ for making an organism
codes how to make particular proteins
proteins determine inherited characteristics
two copies, one from each parent

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3
Q

where are chromosomes found ?

A

In the nucleus

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4
Q

Human cells are which? haploid/diploid

A

diploid

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5
Q

what is a diploid cell?

A

has two sets of chromosomes (in pairs)

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6
Q

what is an allele ?

A

different versions of the same gene
(eye colour) (hair colour)
can be recessive or dominant

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7
Q

what is a dominant allele?

A 
allele characteristic develops only if allele is present on one or both chromosomes in a pair 
Capital letter (C)
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8
Q

what is a recessive allele?

A 
allele characteristic only develops if allele is present on both chromosomes in a pair 
small letter (c)
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9
Q

what is homozygous ?

A

identical alleles in a gene

CC or cc

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10
Q

what is hetrozygous ?

A

two different alleles in a gene

Cc

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11
Q

what is the Genotype ?

A

the alleles you have

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12
Q

what is the Phenotype ?

A

the characteristics the alleles produce

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13
Q

what is Mono hybrid cross ?

A

breeding two organisms to look at one characteristic

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14
Q

what is the phenotypic ratio ?

A

ratio of different ratios in punnet square

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15
Q

what is a condominant allele?

example?

A

neither allele is recessive so characteristics shown from both alleles
e.g. not blood group A or B, but AB

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16
Q

what is DNA?

how is it held together?

A

strands coiled together in a double helix
strands held together by chemical bases A C G T
bases are paired, always A-T and C-G, called complementary base-paring
DNA is a nucleic acid

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17
Q

what are the Bases names for A T C G?

A

adenine
cytosine
guanine
thymine

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18
Q

what is asexual reproduction ?

A

involves only one parent. The offspring have identical genes to the parent - so there’s no variation between parent and offspring

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19
Q

Asexual reproduction is mitosis/meiosis

A

mitosis

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20
Q

what is mitosis ?

where does it take place?

A

cell reproduces itself by splitting to form 2 cells with identical sets of chromosomes (identical genetic info)
takes place everywhere

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21
Q

what are the uses for mitosis ?

A

asexual reproduction
growth and repair
cloning

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22
Q

The two different ways plants reproduce asexually

A

Growing new plants from its stem

Cloning

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23
Q

describe how strawberry plants asexually reproduce

A

Parent strawberry plant send out runners (fast growing stems) above ground
Runners take root at various points
New plants are clones so no genetic variation

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24
Q

what is sexual reproduction ?

A

fusion of male and female gametes to produce genetically different offspring, because there are two parents, offspring contain mixture of parent’s genes

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25
Q

what is the Male (human) gamete

A

sperm cell

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26
Q

what is the Female (human) gamete

A

egg cell

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27
Q

human gametes are diploid/haploid …

how many chromosomes does each have?

A

haploid meaning they have half as normal cell

23 chromosomes each

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28
Q

define human fertilisation

A

fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote

zygote has full set of chromosomes (diploid)

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29
Q

human sexual reproduction - what is the process after zygote formed to embryo ?

A

zygote undergoes cell division (by mitosis) and develops into an embryo

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30
Q

what is meiosis ?

where does it happen?

A

cell division, produces 4 haploid cells whose chromosomes are not identical
only happens in reproductive organs for humans

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31
Q

what is the stamen ?

A

plant male reproductive part

consists of anther and filament

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32
Q

what is the anther ?

A

contains pollen grains which produce male gametes

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33
Q

what is the filament ?

A

stalk that supports the anther

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34
Q

what is the carpel ?

A

female plant reproductive part

consists of ovary, style and stigma

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35
Q

what is the stigma ?

A

end bit that pollen grains attach to

36
Q

what is the style ?

A

rod-like section that supports stigma

37
Q

what is the ovary ?

A

contains female gametes inside ovules

38
Q

what is pollination ?

A

transfer of pollen from anther to stigma, so that male gametes can fertilise female gametes in sexual reproduction

39
Q

what is cross - pollination ?

A

type of sexual reproduction where pollen is transferred from one plant to the stigma of another
cross-pollinating plants rely on insects/wind

40
Q

how are plants adapted for insect pollination ?

A

brightly colour petals to attract insects
scented flowers and nectarines
sticky pollen grains which stick to insects
stigma also sticky so pollen sticks on it

41
Q

what are nectarines ?

A

glands in plant which secrete nectar

42
Q

how are plants adapted for wind pollination ?

A

small dull petals - no need to attract
no nectarines / scents needed
lots of small / light pollen grains
long filaments that hang anthers outside to release pollen
large feathery stigma outside to catch pollen

43
Q

how does plant fertilisation happen?

A

pollen lands on stigma - pollen tube grows out of pollen into ovule - nucleus from male gamete moves down to join female gamete - fertilisation occurs to form zygote - zygote uses to mitosis to form embryo - each fertilised female gamete forms seed - ovary develops into fruit around seed

44
Q

define fertilisation

A

fusion on gametes to form zygote

45
Q

what are the conditions needed for germination ?

why are these needed?

A

water - activate enzymes to break down food reserves
oxygen - for respiration, provides energy for growth
suitable temp - optimum temp for enzymes (depends on type of seed)

46
Q

how does a germinating seed get energy ?

what is the energy needed for?

A

seed contains embryo and food reserves wrapped in hard seed coat
uses glucose for respiration for energy to grow
once leaves develop, it can photosynthesise

47
Q

explain how you can artificially clone a plant

why is this effective?

A

can take cuttings from good plants and plant them to produce genetically identical clones
these plants can be produced fast and cheap

48
Q

what is the urethra ?

A

tube which carries sperm through penis during ejaculation. Also urine passes through here

49
Q

what is the erectile tissue ?

A

swells when filled with blood to make penis erect

50
Q

what is the testis (plural testes)?

A

where sperm is made

51
Q

what is the glands ?

A

produce liquid that’s added to sperm to make semen

52
Q

what is the sperm duct ?

A

muscular tube that carries sperm from testis towards urethra

53
Q

what is the scrotal sac ?

A

hangs behind penis and contains testes

54
Q

how often is an ovum (egg) produced?

A

every 28 days

55
Q

what if an egg doesn’t get fertilised?

A

ovum breaks up, and pass out of vagina

56
Q

what if an egg does get fertilised?

A

ovum starts to divide, new cells travel down Fallopian tube to uterus and attach to uterus lining, develops into embryo

57
Q

what does ovum mean?

A

egg

58
Q

what is the Fallopian tube (oviduct)?

A

muscular tube that carries ovum from ovary to uterus

59
Q

what is the ovary ?

A

organ that produces eggs (ova) and sex hormones

60
Q

what is the uterus (womb)?

A

organ where embryo grows

61
Q

what is the vagina ?

A

where sperm is deposited

62
Q

what is the cervix ?

A

neck of the uterus

63
Q

what is the uterus lining ?

A

has good blood supply for implantation of embryo

64
Q

what are the female secondary characteristics and hormone ?

A 
oestrogen causes :
extra body hair 
hips widen 
development of breasts 
ovum release and start of periods
65
Q

what are the male secondary characteristics and hormone ?

A 
testosterone causes :
extra body / facial hair 
muscles develop 
penis and testicles enlarge 
sperm production 
deepening of the voice
66
Q

what is the stage 1 of menstrual cycle ?

A

bleeding starts

uterus lining breaks down for about 4 days

67
Q

what is the stage 2 of menstrual cycle ?

A

uterus lining builds up again from day 4 to 14, into think spongy layer of blood vessels, ready to receive fertilised egg

68
Q

what is the stage 3 of menstrual cycle ?

A

an ovum develops and is released from the ovary at day 14

69
Q

what is the stage 4 of menstrual cycle ?

A

walls is then maintained for about 14 days until day 28.

If no fertilised egg lands, uterus lining breaks down

70
Q

what is oestrogen for? (menstrual cycle)

when is it produced?

A

causes uterus lining to thicken and grow

stimulates (production of LH to) release of an ovum at day 14

71
Q

what is progesterone for? (menstrual cycle)

when is it produced?

A

maintains uterus lining
when progesterone levels fall, uterus lining breaks down
if becomes pregnant, levels stay high

72
Q

what is the function of the placenta ?

A

provides developing baby with nutrients / oxygen

takes away waste

73
Q

what is the function of the amniotic sac?

A

full of amniotic fluid which surround embryo to protect it

74
Q

what is the 23rd chromosome labelled ?

A

XX or XY

75
Q

what causes male characteristics ?

A

The Y chromosome causes males (so XY)

76
Q

what causes female characteristics ?

A

XX chromosomes

77
Q

what causes genetic variation ?

A

Sexual reproduction and mutation in genes

78
Q

List some variation factors which aren’t affect by the environment

A

eye colour
hair colour
inherited disorders (cystic fibrosis)
blood group

79
Q

How can the environment affect height / weight ?

A

the diet - so poor diet leads to stunting growth

80
Q

List the variation factors of plants

A

sunlight / moisture level / temp / mineral content of soil

The environment greatly affects plants

81
Q

State the theory of evolution

A

Life began as simple organisms from which more complex organisms evolved

82
Q

what is a mutation ?

describe how they work

A

a random change in DNA
changes sequence of DNA bases, changing the production of protein, which could lead to new characteristics, increasing variation

83
Q

Explain how a mutation can happen spontaneously

A

this happens when a chromosome doesn’t quite copy itself properly

84
Q

How can you increase chances of a spontaneous mutation ?

A

ionising radiation - X-rays / gamma rays …

chemicals called mutagens - like in tobacco

85
Q

Give the answer for a 5 mark what is natural selection question

A

genetic mutations in an organism lead to variation
variation can lead to specific organisms surviving
organisms go onto to reproduce and pas on their genes to their offspring
happens over several generations

86
Q

how can mutations be harmful ?

A

if occurs in reproductive cell, offspring might develop abnormally or die
if occurs in body cell, mutant cell may multiply and invade parts of body (cancer)

87
Q

explain how antibiotic-resistant bacteria come about and how they are a problem

A

random mutations in DNA causes them to resist antibiotics, so live longer and reproduces, passing on resistant gene
problem because they are much harder to get rid of

Biology by Thaidz (10 decks)

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