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Reproduction Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what does DNA stand for

A

deoxyribonucleic acid

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2
Q

what is DNA

A

the chemical that all of the genetic material in a cell is made from

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3
Q

what does DNA contain

A

coded information of the instructions on how to put an organism together and make it work

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4
Q

where is DNA found

A

in chromosomes

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5
Q

what is the shape of DNA

A

a double helix

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6
Q

what causes the shape of DNA

A

the two strands of the DNA molecule is coiled together forming a shape of a double helix

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7
Q

what is gene

A

a small section of the DNA found on a chromosome

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8
Q

what do genes code tells cells to make

A

a particular sequence of amino acids which are put together to make a specific protein

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9
Q

how many amino acids are used to make thousands of proteins

A

20

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10
Q

what do genes tells cells to do

A

they tell them what order to put amino acids together

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11
Q

what do DNA determine

A

what proteins the cell produces e.g haemoglobin and keratin which then determines what type of cell it is

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12
Q

what is a genome

A

the entire genetic material of an organism

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13
Q

why is understanding the human genome a really important tool for science and medicine

A

1) allows scientists to identify genes in the genome that are linked to different types of diseases and inherited diseases which helps us understand them better and develop effective treatments for them
2) scientist can look at genomes to trace the migration of certain populations of people around the world, all modern humans are descended from a common ancestor who lived in Africa, but as different populations migrated away from africa, they gradually developed differences in their genomes, by investigating these differences when the new population split off in a different direction and what route they took

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14
Q

what are DNA strands

A

polymers made up of lots of repeating units called nucleotides

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15
Q

what do nucleotides consist of

A

a sugar, a phosphate group and one base

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16
Q

what do the sugar and phosphate groups farm

A

a backbone to the DNA strands

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17
Q

what do the bases join to make

A

the sugar in DNA

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18
Q

what are the different bases

A

A, T, C and G

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19
Q

what are the complementary base pairs

A

A - T
C - G

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20
Q

what do the order of bases determine

A

the order of amino acids in proteins

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21
Q

how are amino acids coded

A

by a sequence of three bases in the gene

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22
Q

what do the parts of the DNA that dont code for proteins do

A

switch genes on and off and control whether or not the gene is expressed

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23
Q

where are proteins made

A

in ribosomes

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24
Q

how do ribosomes make proteins

A

they use the code in DNA, by using a molecule called mRNA which is made by copying the code from the DNA, mRNA acts as a messenger between the DNA and the ribosome as it carries the code between the two, the correct amino acids are brought to the ribosomes in the correct order by the carrier molecule

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25
Q

examples of proteins

A
  • enzymes
  • structural proteins
  • hormones
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26
Q

what do enzymes do

A

act as a biological catalyst to speed up the chemical reactions in the body

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27
Q

what do hormones do

A

carry messages around the body

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28
Q

what are structural proteins

A

they are physically strong proteins e.g collagen that strengthens connective tissues

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29
Q

what are mutations

A

a random change in an organisms DNA

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30
Q

how can the chance of mutations increase

A
  • carcinogens
  • certain types of radiation
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31
Q

what do mutations do

A

it changes the sequence of DNA bases in a gene, which produces a genetic variant and can lead to changes in the protein it codes for

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32
Q

what does the shape of a protein determine

A

its function

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33
Q

what is substitution mutations

A

when one of the bases in the DNA sequence is changed for another random base

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34
Q

why do mutations sometimes have no effect on the shape or function of the protein

A

as it does not change the amino acid sequence, as different base triplets can sometimes encode for the same amino acid, so the mutation has no effect on the shape or function of the protein

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35
Q

why do mutations sometimes have an effect on the shape or function of the protein

A

as the amino sequence has changed and now the protein has a different amino acid

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36
Q

how can mutations affect the non coding part of the DNA

A

as a gene may be turned on when its supposed to be off, so the cell would produce a protein that its not meant to have at that time

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37
Q

what are groups 3 bases called

A

codon (which codes for 1 of the 20 different amino acids)

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38
Q

how are proteins made

A

when amino acids join together and fold into a specific shape

39
Q

why are insertion mutations harmful

A

as it causes all the subsequent bases to be shifted along by one which alters all of the subsequent condon, causing the amino acid chain after the point of insertion would be different

40
Q

how many bases codes for a particular amino acid

A

3

41
Q

what are deletion mutations

A

when a random base is deleted from the DNA base sequence, causing the bases to shift along to the left and this will change way that the base sequence is read and have the same effect as the substitute sequence

42
Q

what is sexual reproduction

A

where gentic information from two organisms is combined to produce offspring which are genetically different to either parent

43
Q

what happens in sexualr reproductions

A

the mother and father produce gametes by meiosis and the egg form the mum and the sperm cell from the dad fuse together to form a cell with a full number of chromosomes

44
Q

how many chromosomes do human gametes contain

A

23

45
Q

how many chromosomes each do human gametes contain

A

1

46
Q

why do offspring inherits features from both parents

A

as sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes so the offspring contains a mixture of their parents genes

47
Q

why is it good that offspring inherits features from both parents

A

as the mixture of genetic information produces variation of the offspring

48
Q

what happens in asexual reproduction

A

in asexual reproduction there is only one parent so there is no fusion of the gametes, no mixing of chromosomes and no genetic variation between parent and offspring so the offspring are genetically identical to the parent (they are clones)

49
Q

how does asexual reproduction occur

A

by mitosis

50
Q

example of organisms that do asexual reproduction

A
  • bacteria
  • plants
  • animals
51
Q

how do you make gametes

A

cells divide by meiosis

52
Q

where does meiosis occur in humans

A

reproductive organs

53
Q

stages of meiosis

A

1) before the cell starts to divide it duplicates its genetic information, forming two armed chromosomes, with one arm of each chromosome the exact copy of the other arm and after replication the chromosomes arrange themselves in pairs
2) in the first division in meiosis the chromosome pairs line up the centre of the cell
3) the pairs are pulled apart so each new cell has only one copy of each chromosome
4) in the second division the chromosomes are lined up again in the centre of the cell and the arms of the chromosome are pulled apart
5) you then form 4 gametes, each with a single set of chromosomes in it, each gamete is genetically different from others as the chromosomes all get shuffled u during meiosis and each gamete only get half of them at random

54
Q

what happens aster two gametes fuse during fertilisation

A

the produce a new cell which then divides by mitosis to produce a copy of itself, mitosis would then repeat many times to produce lots of new cells in an embryo

55
Q

what happens when an embryo develops

A

the cells would then start to diffrentiate into different types of specialised cells that make up a whole organism

56
Q

advantages of sexual reproduction

A
  • the species can adapt to new environments due to variation, which gives them a survival advantage and are more likely to breed and pass the genes with their characteristics (this is known as natural selection)
  • a disease is less likely to affect all the individuals in a population due to variation
  • humans can speed up natural selection by selective breeding which allows us to produce animals with desirable characteristics, this means that we can increase food production breeding
57
Q

disadvantages of sexual reproductions

A
  • time and energy are needed to find a mate
  • it is not possible for an isolated individual
58
Q

what is selective breeding

A

where individuals with desirable characteristics are bred to produce offspring that have desirable characteristics too

59
Q

advantages of asexual reproduction

A
  • there only needs to be one parent
  • it uses less time and energy as organisms dont need to find a mate
  • its faster than sexual reproduction
  • many offspring can be produced in favourable conditions
60
Q

disadvantages of asexual reproduction

A
  • it does not lead to variation in a population
  • the species may only be suited to one habitat
  • disease may affect all the individuals in a population
61
Q

what organism can reproduce sexually and asexually

A
  • Malaria - when a mosquito carrying the parasite bites a human, the parasite can be transferred to the human, the parasite reproduces sexually in the mosquito and asexually in the human
  • Fungus - species release spores which can become new fungi when they land in a suitable place, spores can be produced sexually or asexually, asexually produced spores form fungi that are genetically identical to the parent fungus, sexually produced spores introduce variation and are produced when there is a change in environment, increasing their chance in survival if the change occurs again
  • Plants - flowering plants reproduce sexually as they have egg cells and the pollen acts as sperm whilst strawberries reproduce asexually as they produce runners ( stems that grow horizontally away from the plant) and at various points of the runner a new strawberry plant forms that is identical to the plant
62
Q

what does the 23rd pair of chromosome determine

A

your sex

63
Q

what chromosomes do males have

A

XY - - they Y chromosome cause male characteristics

64
Q

what chromosomes do females have

A

XX - the XX combination cause female characteristics

65
Q

why is there a 50% of being a boy or girl

A

as when making a sperm the X and Y chromosome are drawn apart in the first division of meiosis so there is a 50 % chance that a sperm will get a X or Y chromosome, in eggs the original cell has two X chromosomes so all eggs have one X chromosome so when an eggs and sperm fuses there is a 50% chance of getting an XY chromosome or XX chromosome

66
Q

how are characteristics controlled

A

by several genes interacting

67
Q

what are alleles

A

Alleles are different versions of the same gene

68
Q

how many alleles are in every gene of the body

A

2

69
Q

what is a homozygous gene

A

two alleles of a gene that are the same

70
Q

what is a hetrozygous gene

A

two alleles of a gene that are different

71
Q

what is a dominant allele

A

the allele that is always expressed, even if a recessive gene is expressed

72
Q

what is a recessive allele

A

the allele that is only expressed if the individual has two copies of itself and does not have the dominant allele of that gene

73
Q

what is a genotype

A

the collection of alleles that determine an organism’s characteristics

74
Q

what is a phenotype

A

your characteristic

75
Q

what is cystic fibrosis

A

a genetic disorder of the cell membrane

76
Q

what does cystic fibrosis do to the body

A

causes the body to produce a lot of thick sticky mucus in the air passage and in the pancreas

77
Q

what are carriers

A

people with only one copy of the recessive allele that dont have the disorder

78
Q

what does it take for a child to have cystic fibrosis

A

both parents must be either carriers or have the disorder themselves

79
Q

what is the dominant allele for cystic fibrosis represented as

A

F

80
Q

what is the dominant allele for cystic fibrosis represented as

A

F

81
Q

what is the recessive allele for cystic fibrosis represented as

A

f

82
Q

how many people carry cystic fibrosis

A

1 in 25

83
Q

what is polydactyly

A

a genetic disorder where a babys born with extra fingers or toe

84
Q

what is cyctic fibrosis caused by

A

the recessive allele

85
Q

what is polydactyly caused by

A

the dominant allele

86
Q

what is the dominant allele represented as in polydactyly

A

D

87
Q

what is the recessive allele represented as in polydactyly

A

d

88
Q

what causes a child to have polydactyly

A

if one of the parents carries the condition

89
Q

how are embryos screened before IVF

A
  • before the embryo is implanted into the mother’s womb the doctor would remove a cell from the embryo and analyse its genes to detect genetic disorders
90
Q

what happens to the embryos with gentic disorders for IVF

A

the embryos would be destroyed

91
Q

what happens to the embryos with gentic disorders for embryos in the womb

A

could lead to the decision to terminate the pregnancy

92
Q

advantages for embryo screening

A
  • it would help to stop people suffering
  • treating disorders costs the government money
  • there are laws to stop it going to far
93
Q

disadvantages for embryo screening

A
  • it implies that people with genetic problems are undesirable and this could increase prejudice
  • there may come a point where everyone wants to screen their embryos so they can pick the most desirable one
  • screening is expensive

biology (16 decks)

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