Repro Flashcards
What is orchitis and what is its principal cause? What are the signs, symptoms and complications?
Orchitis (or-KIE-tis) is an inflammation of one or both testicles.
It is usually caused by a bacterial infection or by the mumps virus.
Bacterial orchitis can be caused by sexually transmitted infections (STIs), particularly gonorrhea or chlamydia
What is the commonest type of testicular tumour? What is a teratoma and why is the prognosis poor?
Germ cell seminoma The main types of germ cell tumors (GCTs) in the testicles are seminomas and non-seminomas.
A teratoma is a tumor made up of several different types of tissue, such as hair, muscle, or bone.[4] They typically form in the ovaries, testicles, or tailbone and less commonly in other areas.[4] Symptoms may be minimal if the tumor is small.[2] A testicular teratoma may present as a painless lump.[1] Complications may include ovarian torsion, testicular torsion, or hydrops fetalis.[3][1][2]
Teratomas can cause an autoimmune illness called N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis. In this condition the teratomas may contain B cells with NMDA-receptor specificities.[18]
After surgery, there is a risk of regrowth in place, or in nearby organs.[19]
What are the contents of the spermatic cord?
The pampiniform plexus,
testicular artery,
cremasteric artery,
artery of the ductus deferens
, lymphatic vessels,
testicular sympathetic nerves,
and ductus deferens
all run deep to the internal spermatic fascia. The ilioinguinal nerve runs on the superficial surface of the external spermatic fascia
What are the causes, signs and symptoms and complications of torsion of the spermatic cord?
Occasionally a tumor or prior trauma may be present.[1][3] Risk factors include a congenital malformation known as a “bell-clapper deformity” wherein the testis is inadequately attached to the scrotum allowing it to move more freely and thus potentially twist.[1] Cold temperatures may also be a risk factor.[1] The diagnosis should usually be made based on the presenting symptoms
It is most common just after birth and during puberty.[
Testicular torsion usually presents with sudden, severe, testicular pain (in groin and lower abdomen) and tenderness.[2] There is often associated nausea and vomiting.[2] The testis may be higher than its normal position. Mild pyrexia and redness of overlying area may be found
- What is the significance of a retracted nipple?
Breast carcinoma
Paget’s disease
Inflammatory breast cancer
Gynecomastia
Holoprosencephaly, recurrent infections, and monocytosis
Tuberculosis
- What are the options available for diagnosing the breast mass? What are the arguments for and against each method?
A fluid-filled area usually indicates a breast cyst. A solid-appearing mass most likely is a noncancerous lump, such as a fibroadenoma, but solid lumps also could be breast cancer
breast examination
scan – usually a breast X-ray (mammogram) or ultrasound
biopsy – where a needle is inserted into the lump to remove some cells for testing
- Is there a difference in cancer risk for post- versus pre-menopause women?
Starting menopause after age 55 increases a woman’s risk of breast cancer and endometrial cancer. … Women who start menopause later also may have an increased risk of ovarian cancer, possibly because they have had more ovulations
Increased exposure to hormones, such as estrogen
Increased number of ovulations
- Describe the changes that occur in the female reproductive tract after the menopause.
As hormone levels fall, other changes occur in the reproductive system, including:
Vaginal walls become thinner, dryer, less elastic, and possibly irritated. Sometimes sex becomes painful due to these vaginal changes.
Your risk of vaginal yeast infections increases.
The external genital tissue decreases and thins, and can become irritated.
The ovaries stop making the hormones estrogen and progesterone.
List some other patterns and causes of abnormal uterine bleeding.
Thickening of the uterine wall or lining
Uterine fibroids
Uterine polyps
Cancers of ovaries, uterus, cervix, or vagina
Bleeding disorders or problems with blood clotting
Polycystic ovary syndrome
Severe weight loss
Hormonal birth control, such as birth control pills or
intrauterine devices (IUD)
Excessive weight gain or loss (more than 10 pounds or 4.5 kilograms)
Infection of the uterus or cervix
- If the source is endometrial, what is the most likely pathology?
Endometrial hyperplasia occurs when the endometrium, the lining of the uterus, becomes too thick. It is not cancer, but in some cases, it can lead to cancer of the uterus.
- Is a pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) a likely diagnosis for this patient? What is the symptom profile for this condition?
Pelvic inflammatory disease is an infection of a woman’s reproductive organs. It is a complication often caused by some STDs, like chlamydia and gonorrhea. Other infections that are not sexually transmitted can also cause PID
pain around the pelvis or lower abdomen (tummy)
discomfort or pain during sex that’s felt deep inside the pelvis
pain during urination
bleeding between periods and after sex
heavy periods
painful periods
unusual vaginal discharge, especially if it’s yellow or green
- What is the most important prognostic factor in endometrial carcinoma?
Tumors with high progesterone receptor expression have a good prognosis compared to tumors with low progesterone receptor expression; 93% of women with high progesterone receptor disease survived to three years, compared with 36% of women with low progesterone receptor disease.[4] Heart disease is the most common cause of death among those who survive endometrial cancer,[65] with other obesity-related health problems also being common.[66] Following diagnosis, quality of life is also positively associated with a healthy lifestyle (no obesity, high-quality diet, physical activity).[67]
- What change occurs in the prostate in BPH and prostatic cancer?
difficulty starting to pee
a frequent need to pee
difficulty fully emptying your bladder
, hematuria (blood in the urine), and dysuria (painful urination)
- What may be the consequences of long-term, untreated BPH?
If left untreated, BPH can progress and cause subsequent medical issues. When the bladder does not empty completely, you become at risk for developing urinary tract infections (UTIs)
- To where may be prostatic cancer be disseminated and what may be its consequences?
Disseminated prostate cancer demonstrates a typical pattern of spread involving lymph nodes and bone in over 80% of cases.
