Relationships - Paper 3 *****

Question 1

What is Social Exchange Theory?

Answer 1

An economic theory of romantic relationships that describes relationships as a series of exchanges between partners, aiming for a balance of rewards and costs.

• Claim that partners try to reward maximise (praise, emotional support, sex) and cost minimise (stress, arguments).

Question 2

What is Comparison Level (CL)? - Social Exchange Theory

Answer 2

People look back on previous relationships and set a benchmark of how much reward they deserve to receive.

Question 3

What is Comparison Level for Alternatives (CLalt)? - Social Exchange Theory

Answer 3

This is a person’s perception of whether different relationships (or being single) would be more rewarding than their current relationship.

• People will stick in their current relationship if it’s seen to be more profitable than other relationships.

Question 4

The 4 Stages of Relationships - Social Exchange Theory

Answer 4

1. Sampling Stage
2. Bargaining Stage
3. Commitment Stage
4. Institutionalisation Stage

Question 5

1. Sampling Stage - Social Exchange Theory

Answer 5

Where people explore potential rewards + costs of relationships, either by direct experience or by observing others.

Question 6

2. Bargaining Stage - Social Exchange Theory

Answer 6

Partners exchange rewards + costs, figure out the most profitable exchanges and negotiate the dynamics of the relationship.

Question 7

3. Commitment Stage

Answer 7

When relationships become more stable and partners become familiar with sources of rewards + costs and each other’s expectations.

Question 8

4. Institutionalisation Stage

Answer 8

When costs + rewards are well established.

Question 9

Strength of Social Exchange Theory

Answer 9

P - A strength = supported by research.

E - Sprecher (2001) found that Comparison Level for Alternatives (CLalt) were a strong predictor of commitment in relationship, whilst rewards were important as predictor of satisfaction (especially for women).

E - Based on these findings, some people appear to base their evaluation of romantic relationships on rewards + costs.

L - Therefore, it would appear some people do stay in current relationship while it remains more profitable than alternatives.

Question 10

Criticism of Social Exchange Theory

Answer 10

P - Confusion of what’s a cost and a benefit.

E - What might be considered rewarding for one person (constant attention) may be a cost to another (might be annoying).

E - In addition, what might be seen as benefit at one stage of relationship may be a cost at another stage, as partners may redefine something they perceived as a reward/cost.

L - Suggests Social Exchange Theory is very subjective and its concepts are difficult to define.

Question 11

Issue + Debate of Social Exchange Theory

Answer 11

P - Criticism is that it’s deterministic.

E - According to SET, if costs outweigh rewards, a person will leave a relationship.

E - However, many cases where someone will stay in high-cost relationship (if one partner is very ill) without feeling dissatisfied.

L - Means that SET is unable to establish whether a person will feel un/happy in a relationship, based on costs + rewards.

Question 12

What is Equity Theory

Answer 12

Equity theory suggests that people are concerned about the fairness in a relationship and fairness is achieved when people feel they get approx. what they deserve. (Someone who puts in a lot should get a lot back).

• If person perceives a relationship is unfair they’ll be dissatisfied.
• One partner’s profit = Other partner’s profit = Equity.

Profit = Benefits - Costs.

Question 13

Strength of Equity Theory

Answer 13

P - Supporting research on role of equity in marriage satisfaction.

E - Over 200 married couple answered questions designed to measure equity and overall satisfaction with their relationship.

E - Found that satisfaction was higher in equitable relationships.

L - Demonstrates support for Equity Theory as there seems to be positive correlation between relationship satisfaction and equity.

Question 14

Criticism of Equity Theory

Answer 14

P - An issue is that there’s individual differences in perception of equity.

E - Huseman et al. (1987) developed the idea of equity sensitivity, which determines the extent to which an individual will tolerate inequity.

E - Huseman said that people who are less sensitive to inequity and are prepared to give more in the relationship, whereas other people believe they deserve to over-benefit from relationships and don’t feel guilty about this.

L - Equity Theory cannot be reliably applied to all people with the expectation that it will be able to explain their romantic relationships with confidence.

Question 15

What is Rusbult’s Investment Model?

Answer 15

There are 3 major factors that lead to commitment in relationships:

• Satisfaction
• Alternatives
• Investment

3 Factors -> Commitment -> Future Stay or Leave Decision.

Question 16

Satisfaction - Rusbult’s Investment Model

Answer 16

Based upon comparison level in SET.
Partner will have higher level of satisfaction with their relationship if they rewards>costs.

Satisfaction = Benefits - Costs.

Question 17

Alternatives - Rusbult’s Investment Model

Answer 17

Based on person’s perception of whether different relationships (or being single) would be more rewarding than the current relationship.

• People will stay in relationship if rewards in current relationship>different relationship.

Question 18

Investment - Rusbult’s Investment Model

Answer 18

Most important factor that maintains commitment into a relationship is investment.

Investment = Anything a person puts into a relationship that will be lost if they leave.

• Intrinsic Investments - resources we put directly into a relationship (money).
• Extrinsic Investments - resources that didn’t originally feature but do now (children, possessions).

Question 19

Commitment - Rusbult’s Investment Model

Answer 19

Commitment = A partner’s desire to remain in a couple and reflects their intention to have a LT future together.

Question 20

Practical Application of Rusbult’s Investment Model

Answer 20

P - Provides explanation of why people stay in abusive relationships.

E - If a partner feels what they’ve invested will be lost if they lave the relationship, they’re more likely to stay even when costs are high (abuse) and rewards are few.

E - E.g. ‘Battered’ Women Study found that women were more likely to return to an abusive partner if they felt they had invested a lot and they didn’t have any appealing alternatives.

L - Shows that Investment Model can be applied to a wide range of relationships experiences that other theories can’t explain. Therefore, increasing validity + application of Investment Model to everyday relationships.

Question 21

Duck’s Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown

Answer 21

Duck (2007) suggested that relationship breakdown is a process that consists of several distinctive phases.

• At each phase there is a threshold, that once breached, moves to the next phase.

Question 22

What are the phases of Duck’s Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown?

Answer 22

• Intra-psychic Phase.
• Dyadic Phase.
• Social Phase.
• Grave Dressing Phase.

Question 23

What is the Intra-psychic Phase of Relationship Breakdown?

Answer 23

This is when a person admits to themselves that they’re dissatisfied with their relationship.

• They will spend a lot of time thinking about the reasons for this dissatisfaction and possible ways to move forward.
• Focuses on a person’s internal thought processes which occurs before confronting the partner.

Question 24

What is the Cognitive Threshold of the Intra-psychic Phase?

Answer 24

• Before the next stage, the person reaches a cognitive threshold ‘I can’t stand this anymore’.

Question 25

What is the Dyadic Phase of Relationship Breakdown?

Answer 25

This when a person confronts their partner and says they’re dissatisfied, there are many complaints coming from the partner initiating the break-up.

• The dissatisfied partner also rethinks of alternatives to their relationship.

Question 26

What is the Cognitive Threshold of the Dyadic Phase?

Answer 26

The Cognitive Threshold reached at this stage is: ‘I would be justified in withdrawing’.

Question 27

What is the Social Phase of Relationship Breakdown?

Answer 27

This is when friends and family find out about the dissatisfaction by the partner making it public.

• It is more difficult to mend the relationship as friends and families will take sides and offer advice to the partners.

Question 28

What is the Cognitive Threshold of the Social Phase?

Answer 28

The cognitive threshold at this stage: ‘I mean it’.

Question 29

What is the Grave Dressing Phase of Relationship Breakdown?

Answer 29

After leaving their relationship, both sides construct their version of why the relationship broke down, usually minimising their faults and maximising their partner’s, but also trying to show themselves as trustworthy to attract a new partner.

Question 30

What is the Cognitive Threshold of the Grave Dressing Phase?

Answer 30

The threshold for this phase: ‘It’s inevitable, it’s time to start a new life’.

Question 31

Strength of Duck’s Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown

Answer 31

P - Supported by scientific research.

E - Tashiro and Frasier (2003) showed that viewing the situation, rather than own faults, as being responsible for ending the relationships, helps people to see the break-up in a more positive light and move on, just as Duck predicts.

E - This shows how people deal with breakups by trying to leave their ‘social credit’ intact - providing support for the grave dressing phase.

L - This strengthens the claims made by the model and highlights the application of the theory to everyday relationships.

Question 32

Criticism of Duck’s Model of Relationship Breakdown

Answer 32

P - It doesn’t explain all relationships.

E - Duck (2005) suggests that the nature and impact of the social phase experienced during breakup depends on the sort of relationship that is involved especially in relation to the age of the partners.

E - E.g. for teenagers and young adults, romantic relationships are seen as more unstable than long-term adult relationships, and are largely recognised by other as being ‘testing grounds’ for future long-term commitments.

L - This shows it can’t necessarily be applied to all couples and, as a result, suggests that the model is unable to accurately predict breakdown in different types of relationship.

Question 33

What are the 2 theories of Self Disclosure: Virtual Relationships in Social Media.

Answer 33

1. Reduced Cues Theory (reduced self-disclosure).

2. The Hyperpersonal Model (increased self-disclosure).

Question 34

Reduced Cues Theory: Self-disclosure in Virtual Relationships

Answer 34

• Online relationships might be less open and honest than face-to-face ones, because in real life we rely on subtle cues (facial expressions).
• The reduction in communication cues leads to deindividuation because it diminishes people’s feelings of individual identity and brings on behaviours that people usually restrain themselves from displaying in face-to-face interactions (aggressive).
• Therefore may make online communication more aggressive.

Question 35

The Hyperpersonal Theory: Self-disclosure in Virtual Relationships

Answer 35

• Self-disclosure in online relationships happens earlier than in face-to-face ones, relationships quickly become more intense, intimate and meaningful.
• They also tend to end more quickly, as it is difficult to sustain the same level of intense self-disclosure for an extended time period.
• Also, may feel more intimate as it’s easier to manipulate self-disclosure online than face-to-face, more time to edit responses to present themselves in a positive light (selective self-presentation).

Question 36

The Absence of Gating in Virtual Relationships

Answer 36

• In face-to-face relations, ‘gates’ (physical appearance, manners) determine who we develop relationships with.
• In online relationships there is an absence of of these ‘gates’ so people will see the true person.
  This enables shy, less attractive people to also form close relationships.

Question 37

Strength of Self-Disclosure: Virtual Relationships in Social Media

Answer 37

P - Research supporting increased self-disclosure in virtual relationships was conducted by Joinson (2001).

E - Ppts were paired and asked to discuss an abstract dilemma either face-to-face or computer chat programme.

E - Found ppts using computer showed significantly more self-disclosure than face-to-face ppts.

L - People disclose more when communication via computer than they do face-to-face. Providing evidence for the Hyperpersonal model of self-disclosure.

Question 38

Strength of Absence of Gating: Virtual Relationships in Social Media.

Answer 38

P - Research support from Baker & Oswald (2010).

E - 207 male and female ppts to complete a questionnaire, scoring their answers in terms of shyness, internet use and perception of quality of their relationships.

E - Found that ppts who scored high on shyness and internet use, perceived their relationships as high, this correlation was absent for ppts with low shyness scores.

L - Implies that as online communication helps people to overcome their shyness, so the quality of their face-to-face communication also improves.

Question 39

Criticism of Virtual Relationships in Social Media: Self-disclosure + absence of gating.

Answer 39

P - Issue of studying virtual relationship in social media is that it is affected by changes in a fast-paced society.

E - Most of the research on virtual relationships was conducted in the late 1990s and 2000s. As technology is changing rapidly, so is the nature of online relationships.

E - Therefore, research in this area risks becoming outdated by the time it was published.

L - This decreases temporal validity of research into virtual relationships and means the findings into virtual relationships may not apply to the current time

Question 40

Strength of Rusbult’s Investment Model.

Answer 40

P - Research support from Le and Agnew (2003).

E - A meta-analysis was conducted by 52, studies (5 different countries) each piece of research had explored satisfaction, comparison with alternatives (CALT), investment and their impact on commitment to the relationship.

E - It was found that satisfaction with the relationship, CALT, and investment in the partnership all correlated significantly with commitment to that union.

L - The results indicate support for Investment Model of romantic relationships with individuals showing the highest level of commitment to a partnership choosing to remain in the relationship.

Question 41

Criticism of Rusbult’s Investment Model.

Answer 41

P - Potential methodological issues with studying the Investment Model.

E - Some psychologists point out that most evidence for Investment Model comes from interviews and questionnaires, which are known to be subjective and unreliable.

E - Furthermore, the majority of research into the Investment Model is correlational. This is a problem because psychologists are unable to conclude that that investment causes commitment in relationships.

L - These methodology issues limit the validity of the model, as it would fail to predict which types of investment, and how much investment, is needed for a long-term commitment to a relationship to develop.

Question 42

Onother explanation of equity theory?

Answer 42

P - An alternative explanation to the equity theory is the investment model.

E - Rusbult found that when people were deciding whether to end a relationship, they weighed up the rewards and the costs of the relationship and alternatives available to them.

E - They also considered ho much they had invested in the relationship. We develop a standard we compare all our relationships against (comparision level: CL), this is based on all of our experiences plus our views of hat we might gain from a particular exchange.

L - Therefore, this demonstrates that previous experiences influence our relationships, which the equity model has not accounted for.

Question 43

Other explanation of Duck’s model of relationship breakdown?

Answer 43

P - Rollie and Duck states that the original model is oversimplified. They modified it to have a fifth phase and ressurection process.

E - Rollie and Duck make it clear that progression from one phase to the next is not inevitable as suggested previously. It is possible to return to an earlier point in the process in any phase.

E - The new model emphasises that the processes that occur in relationship breakdown in any order rather than the linear movement from one stage to the next.

L - These changes overcome the weakness of the original model that it is a limited explanation because it does not account for the dynamic nature of break ups.

Question 44

Issues and debates of virtual relationships

Answer 44

P - Research into virtual relationships is based on the experiences of mainly Western, technology developed cultures.

E - Internet technology is not readily available in some countries, so conclusions about the development and effects of virtual communication on romantic relationships cannot be applied to them.

E - There are also important gender differences in virtual relationships as women tended to rate their relationships formed online as more intimate, and valued self-disclosure, especially in regards to emotion, more highly than men.

L - This lowers the validity of research into virtual relationships, limiting the range of relationships explains.