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Psychology > Biopsychology - Paper 2 > Flashcards

Biopsychology - Paper 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the Nervous System + Functions of the Nervous System?

A

Nervous System = A specialised network of cells in the human body and is our primary internal communication system.

It has 2 main functions:

  • To collect, process and respond to info in the environment.
  • To co-ordinate the working of different organs and cells in the body.
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2
Q

What are the 2 sub-systems of the Nervous System?

A
  • Central Nervous System (CNS).

- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

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3
Q

Central Nervous System (CNS) parts of the body + functions?

A

Brain - Centre of all conscious awareness.

Spinal Cord - Responsible for reflex actions (pulling hand away from hot plate).

  • Passes messages to and from the brain.
  • Connects nerves to the PNS.
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4
Q

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) sub-divisions?

A

The PNS is sub-divided into the SNS and ANS.

SNS = Somatic Nervous System.
ANS = Autonomic Nervous System.
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5
Q

What is the Somatic Nervous System (subdivision of the PNS)?

A
  • Part of the PNS responsible for controlling muscle movements (picking up a pen) and receiving info from sensory receptors.
  • Also involved in reflex actions without the involvement of the CNS, which allows the reflex to occur very quickly.
  • The SNS carries commands from the motor cortex.
  • Deals with external environment.
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6
Q

What is the Autonomic Nervous System (subdivision of the PNS)?

A
  • Part of the PNS, that controls the brain’s involuntary activities and is self regulating.
  • Controls vital functions in body such as breathing😮, heart rate , digestion, stress response etc (internal organs).
  • Regulates involuntary activities such as heart beat, indigestion (cannot be voluntary controlled).
  • Autonomic = Automatic = Automatic responses (fight or flight).
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7
Q

What is the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) divided into + functions of each?

A

The ANS is divided into 2 branches:
1. Parasympathetic Branch - Relaxes the body. Known as ‘rest + digest’ response.

  1. Sympathetic Branch - Arouses the body. Known as ‘fight/flight’ response.
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8
Q

Difference between Autonomic (ANS) and Somatic (SNS).

A

ANS = Involuntary. SNS = Voluntary.

ANS = Controls muscles, organs, glands. SNS = Controls skeletal muscles + movement.

ANS = Control centres in brain stem. SNS = Carries commands from motor cortex.

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9
Q

What is a neuron + structure + types?

A

Neurons provide Nervous System with its primary means of communication.

Neurons have a cell body, dendrites and an axon.

3 types of neurons = sensory, relay, motor.

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10
Q

What is a motor neuron’s structure + function?

A
  • Short Dendrites + Long Axons.
  • Connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles + glands.
  • Carries info FROM the brain and TO muscles + glands.
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11
Q

What is a sensory neuron’s structure + function?

A
  • Long Dendrites + Short axons.
  • Carry messages from PNS to the CNS.
  • Carry info FROM senses (SENSORY) TO the brain.
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12
Q

What is a relay neuron’s structure + function?

A
  • Short Dendrites + Short Axons.
  • Connect sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons.
  • Carry info TO and FROM the brain.
  • Involved in analysing info and deciding how to respond.

Located in the Spinal Cord.

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13
Q

What is the process of Synaptic Transmission (including reference to neurotransmitters, excitation + inhibition) ?

A
  1. Electrical Impulse (action potential) reaches the presynaptic terminal.
  2. Causes the vesicles in the presynaptic cleft to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
  3. Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft.
  4. Neurotransmitters bind with the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
  5. Neurotransmitters will cause a stimulation of postsynaptic receptors either:
    - Excitatory or Inhibitory effect.
  6. The likelihood of a cell firing is determined by adding up excitatory and inhibitory input (summation). If net effect on post-synaptic neuron is inhibitory, the neuron will be less likely to fire, if excitatory then more likely to fire.
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14
Q

What is an Excitatory Effect: synaptic transmission?

A

Increases the likelihood of an action potential so increases neural activity.

  • If the neurotransmitter is excitatory then the postsynaptic neuron is more likely to fire an impulse.
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15
Q

What is an Inhibitory Effect: synaptic transmission?

A
  • Decreases likelihood of an action potential so decreases neural activity.
  • If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory then the postsynaptic neuron is less likely to fire an impulse.
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16
Q

Why can neurons only transmit info in one direction at a synapse?

A
  • The synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitter are only released from the presynaptic membrane.
  • The receptors for the neurotransmitters are ONLY present on the post-synaptic membrane.
  • It’s the binding of the neurotransmitter to the receptor, which enables the info to be passed to the next neuron.
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17
Q

Localisation of function of the Brain Definition + Outline areas of the brain.

A

Localisation of function of the brain = Specific functions (language, memory, hearing etc) have specific locations within the brain.

  • Motor Cortex.
  • Broca’s Area.
  • Somatosensory Cortex.
  • Wernicke’s Area.
  • Visual Cortex.
    Auditory + Language Cortex.
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18
Q

Motor Cortex’s responsibility + location in the brain?

A
  • Motor Cortex responsible for generation of voluntary motor movements, more complex actions (not basic such as gagging).
  • Located in frontal lobe of the brain.
  • Both hemispheres have a motor cortex, with one side controlling the opposite side of the body (left hemisphere controls right side of body’s movements).
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19
Q

Broca’s Area responsibility + location in the brain?

A
  • Broca’s Area is responsible for speech production. (Damage results in slow speech, lacks fluency).
  • Located in the LEFT frontal lobe.
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20
Q

Somatosensory Cortex’s responsibility + location in the brain?

A
  • The area where sensory info from the skin is represented (e.g. heat, pressure).
  • Located at the front of the parietal lobe (in both hemispheres).
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21
Q

Wernicke’s Area’s responsibility + location in the brain?

A
  • Responsible for understanding language rather than producing it. (Damage results in patients producing nonsense words when speaking).
  • Located in the LEFT temporal lobe.
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22
Q

Visual Cortex’s responsibility + location in the brain?

A
  • Each eye sends info to the opposite side of the occipital lobe.
    (E.g. damage to left hemisphere can cause blindness in the right visual field of both eyes).
  • Located in the occipital lobe at the back of the brain (in both hemispheres).
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23
Q

Auditory + Language Cortex’s responsibility + location in the brain?

A
  • Concerned with hearing, analyses speech-based info. (Damage may produce hearing loss).
  • Located in the temporal lobes (in both hemispheres).
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24
Q

Strength of the Localisation of Function in the Brain.

A

P - Brain scans + case studies (Phineas Gage), have provided neurological supporting evidence for the localisation of function of the brain.

E - Phineas Gage experienced brain damage (frontal lobe) after an accident at work with explosives. Damage to his brain had a serious influence on his personality.

E - He became bad tempered and rude as the frontal lobe is thought to be responsible for regulating mood.

L - This suggests that areas of the brain have different functions (localisation).

25
Q

Criticism of the Localisation of Function in the Brain.

A

P - However, research relies on flawed case studies.

E - Case studies such as Phineas Cage reflect unique experience of brain damage. Patterns of brain damage can be different between individuals as well as differences in individual’s brain organisation.

E - Therefore, cannot generalise findings to general population as the evidence is not representative.

L - Additionally, brain scans also have limitations. This means that having conclusive evidence of localisation can be difficult.

26
Q

Practical Application of Localisation of Function of the Brain.

A

P - Research investigating localisation has practical applications.

E - Knowledge about language centres in the brain has led to applications in speech and language therapy.

E - This can be used after a person experiences a brain injury/illness.

L - This shows that knowing about different areas of function will provide useful insights to improve lives.

27
Q

What is Hemispheric Lateralisation?

A

Hemispheric Lateralisation = Theory that 2 hemispheres of the brain are functionally different and certain mental processes are mainly controlled by 1 hemisphere rather than the other.

  • E.g. the ability to produce and understand language seems to be lateralised to the left hemisphere (Broca + Wernicke’s Areas).
28
Q

What is Split Brain Research Method - Sperry?

A
  • SET UP: An experimental situation is set up with split visual field: Image/word is projected to the patients right visual field (processed by left hemisphere) and the same/or different image projected to the left visual field (processed by right hemisphere).
  • Researcher did this by blindfolding one eye and then flashing words/images on screen for 1/10th of a second (so ppt didn’t have enough time to move their eye across the image to spread info across both visual fields).
  • STIMULUS: The word key, or a dollar sign.
  • TASK FOR PATIENT: the patient either; stated the word they had seen or wrote the word or matched the word with an object.
29
Q

Findings from Split Brain Research?

A
  • Patients could describe what they saw if the image was projected to the right visual field however they were unable to describe if projected to left visual field.
  • Patients couldn’t attach verbal labels to objects presented to the left visual field, they could select a relevant corresponding object from a bag using their left hand (e.g. if they’d be shown a cigarette they selected an ashtray).
  • When patients were presented with composite words (2 words simultaneously, e.g. key on left and ring or right) patients would write the word ‘key’ with their left hand, or select a ‘key’ from a group of objects and say the word ‘ring’
30
Q

Conclusions from Split Brain Research.

A
  • Language is lateralised to the left hemisphere (Broca’s + Wernicke’s Area).
  • Drawing + face recognition is lateralised to the right hemisphere.
31
Q

Which visual field relates to which hemisphere?

+ Which hemisphere recognises what?

A

Left visual field = Right Hemisphere.
Right visual field = Left Hemisphere.

Right Hemisphere = Pictures.
Left Hemisphere = Language.

32
Q

Strength of Hemispheric Lateralisation and Split Brain Research?

A

P - Sperry’s research was controlled and conducted in lab settings.

E - Sperry used standardised procedures of presenting visual info to 1 Hemispheric Field at a time.

E - E.g. asking ppts to stare at a ‘fixation point’, flashing the image for 0.1 second. He also blindfolded one eye of his ppts to ensure info was only being received by one Hemisphere.

L - This means he could be confident in the conclusions he was making about Hemispheric Lateralisation, as it was a well-controlled procedure.

33
Q

Criticism of Hemispheric Lateralisation and Split Brain Research?

A

P - A major criticism of procedure was Sperry’s sample was it was biased, the findings cannot be widely accepted, as the sample cannot be generalised.

E - He studied a small sample of 11 ppts (all had history of epileptic seizures). Some patients had experienced drug therapy for much longer than others. The disconnection between the hemispheres was greater in some patients that others.

E - It has been argued that these may have caused unique changes in the brain that may have influenced the findings.

L - This means that Sperry’s findings may not be representative of lateralisation in all brains, as it can’t be generalised to normal brains and reduces the validity of the conclusions.

34
Q

Other explanations of hemispheric lateralisation and split brain research?

A

P - there are other explanations for brain function organisation.

E - others argue that the left and right hemispheres are in constant communication and highly integrated and work together.

E - research into neural plasticity has demonstrated that functions typically associated with one hemisphere can be effectively performed by the other. For example, following trauma unaffected areas of the brain take over lost functions.

L - this means that lateralisation theory may not be a complete explanation of brain functions but sperry’s work prompts a complex debate.

35
Q

What is Brain Plasticity?

A

Brain Plasticity = the brain’s ability to change and adapt as a result of experience.
This could be the result of learning new info or repairing itself after damage (functional recovery).

36
Q

What is Synaptic Pruning?

A
  • Rarely used neural connects are deleted and frequently used connections are strengthened (SYNAPTIC PRUNING).
37
Q

What is Neural Regeneration Organisation?

A
  • The brain is able to rewire itself through the growth of new neurons and/or connections (axons & dendrites) between neurons to compensate for damaged areas.
38
Q

What is functional compensation?

A

Functional Compensation = Where the brain reorganises itself, there is a transfer of functions from damaged areas to undamaged areas.

39
Q

What is Axonal Sprouting: structural changes?

A

Axonal Sprouting = Growth of new nerve endings to form new pathways.

40
Q

What is Denervation Super-sensitivity: structural changes?

A

Denervation Super-sensitivity = Axons performing similar functions to damaged ones will become more sensitive to compensate.

41
Q

What is Reformation of Blood Vessels: structural changes?

A

Reformation of Blood Vessels = Blood vessels will be recreated.

42
Q

What is Recruitment of Similar Areas: structural changes?

A

Recruitment of Similar Areas = Other areas of the brain may take over the functions of the damaged area, (this could include the opposite hemisphere to the damage).

43
Q

Supportive evidence of plasticity and functional recovery

A

P - there is evidence to support brain plasticity

E - maguire assessed hippocampal volume in taxi drivers who data knowledge test compared to a matched control group.

E - there was significantly more volume of grey matter in the hippocampus which is associated with the development of spatial and navigational skills.

L - this suggests that brain structure adapts with experience and therefore provides and insight into plasticity and functional recovery

44
Q

Criticism of plasticity and functional recovery

A

P - however, not all individuals show the same degree of plasticity or functional recovery as there are individual differences.

E - functional recovery reduced with age and therefore neural reorganisation is much greater in children than in adults.

E - this is because in childhood the brain is thought to be constantly adapting to new experiences and learning. Although older people might still be able to form new connections between neurons. Research has also found that women tend to recover more effectively than men as their function is not lateralised.

L - this suggests there are different factors involved in determining the plasticity of the brain and the ability to recover will depend on both the location of the damage and the individual

45
Q

Other explanations of plasticity and functional recovery / Another criticism.

A

P - not all instances of plasticity are positive.

E - the brains ability to reword itself can also have negative as well as positive consequences.

E - for example prolonged drug use results in poor cognitive function and greater risk of dementia in individuals.

L- this means that the brains ability to rewrite itself can sometimes have maladaptive behavioural consequences.

46
Q

Outline 4 ways of studying the brain.

A
  1. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI).
  2. Electroencephalogram (EEGs).
  3. Event-Related Potentials (ERPs).
  4. Post-Mortem Examinations.
47
Q

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI)?

A
  • A technique for measuring changes in brain activity while a person performs a task.
  • It works by detecting changes in blood oxygenation and flow that indicate increased neural activity.
  • As a result of these changes in blood flow researchers are able to produce maps showing which areas of the brain are involved in a particular activity.
48
Q

Strength of fMRI.

A

P - Non-invasive technique.

E - fMRI doesn’t rely on use of radiation or cause any damage to individuals. This means that people are more likely to use fMRI over some other ways of studying the brain (post-mortem).

E - Good spatial resolution: fMRI produces 3D images. They have high spatial resolution and provide info on localisation.

L - This means that fMRI is able to show which parts of the brain are activated in a particular mental process.

49
Q

Criticism of fMRI.

A

P - Expensive compared to other techniques.

E - Also, they can only capture an image if person stays still.

E - Additionally, it has poor temporal resolution: fMRI has approx. 5 second time-lag between task and neural activity.

L - This means it can be difficult to assess exactly what kind of brain activity is being represented on screen.

50
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEGs)?

A
  • A method of recording changes in the electrical activity of the brain using electrodes attached to the scalp.
    When electrical electrical signals from different electrodes are graphed over a period of time the resulting representation is called an EEG.
    Electrodes are put on the scalp and detect neuronal activity directly below where they are placed.
    The recording represents the brainwave patterns that are generated from the action of millions of neurons (providing an overall account of brain activity).
51
Q

Event-related potentials (ERPs) ?

A
  • Electrodes are put on the scalp and detect neuronal activity in response to a stimulus introduced by the researcher.
  • ERPs are types of brainwaves triggered by particular event.
  • Researchers have generated a way of isolating responses from EEG.
  • It is a statistical averaging technique which filters out unnecessary info.
  • Therefore, researchers can see responses to a specific stimulus.
52
Q

Differences between ERP and EEG.

A

EEG = recording of general brain activity usually linked to states such as sleep and arousal, whilst ERPs are elicited by specific stimuli presented to the ppt.

53
Q

Characteristics of Scanning Techniques (fMRI, EEG, ERP).

A 
fMRI = non-invasive.
EEG = non-invasive.
ERP = non-invasive.
fMRI = good spatial resolution.
EEG = poor spatial resolution.
ERP = poor spatial resolution. 
fMRI = poor temporal resolution.
EEG = good temporal resolution.
ERP = good temporal resolution.
fMRI = expensive.
EEG = cheap.
ERP = cheap.
54
Q

Strength of EEG and ERP.

A

P - Non-invasive technique.

E - EEG/ERP does not rely on use of radiation or cause any damage to individuals.

E - Also, more practical than fMRI because person doesn’t need to stay still for long periods of time and can be more comfortable - useful for children.
Also, cheaper than fMRI scans.

L - This means that people are more likely to use EEG/ERP over some other ways of studying the brain (fMRI).

55
Q

Criticism of EEG/ERP.

A

P - Poor spatial resolution.

E - Both EEGs and ERPs have poor spatial resolution.

E - Info is received from many thousands of neurons on surface of brain.

L - This means that both methods are not useful in pinpointing the exact source of neural activity (e.g. localisation).

56
Q

Post mortem examinations?

A
  • The brain is examined after death to try and correlate structural abnormalities/damage to behaviour.
    Individuals who have a rare disorder and have experienced unusual deficits in mental processes/ behaviour are most likely to have a post-mortem (SZ).
  • Their brain will be compared to a ‘normal brain’ to identify differences.
57
Q

Strength of Post-Mortem Examinations.

A

P - Post-mortem evidence was vital in early understanding of key processes in the brain.

E - Therefore, post mortems improve our medical knowledge of the brain.

E - Broca + Wernicke both relied on post-mortem examinations to link language and the brain.

L - This means that they may generate hypothesis for further study.

58
Q

Criticism of Post-Mortem Examinations.

A

P - However, post-mortem evidence lacks validity + generalisability, they rely on small sample sizes.

E - They raise ethical issues of consent from the patient before their death (as special permission needs to be granted to conduct a post-mortem).

E - Patients may not be able to provide informed consent (e.g. HM).

L - Neuronal changes can occur during and after death due to decay or trauma. This means that generalisation and causation can be an issue.

Psychology (15 decks)

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