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Formal assessment (memory, psychopathology, research methods) Flashcards

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1
Q

Aim

A

The researcher’s area of interest- what they are looking at (e.g. to investigate helping behaviour)

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2
Q

Bar chart

A

A graph that shows the data in the form of the categories (e.g. behavious observed) that the researcher wishes to observe

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3
Q

Behavioural categories

A

Key behaviours or, collections of behaviours, that the researcher conducting the observational will pay attention to an record

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4
Q

Case study

A

In depth investigation of a single person, group or event, Where data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews)

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5
Q

Closed questions

A

Questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g. yes/no. They generate quantitative data.

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6
Q

Coding units

A

These are the categories researchers placed qualitative data into when conducting a content analysis.

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7
Q

Co-variables

A

the variables investigated in a correlation.

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8
Q

Confidentiality

A

less agreed beforehand participants have the right to expect that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.

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9
Q

confounding variable

A

an extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV.

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10
Q

content analysis

A

Technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written group into categories - converting qualitative data into quantitative data

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11
Q

control group

A

a group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not expected to the experimental treatment (e.g. allowed to sleep normally)

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12
Q

controlled observation

A

an observational study where the researchers control some variables - often takes place in a laboratory setting.

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13
Q

correlational analysis

A

a mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two Co variables are related

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14
Q

counterbalancing

A

a way of trying to control order effects in a repeated measures design, e.g. half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A

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15
Q

covert observations

A

also known as an undisclosed observation as the participants do not know their behaviour as being observed

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16
Q

debreifing

A

after completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant. Aim of debriefing = to return the person to the state s/he was in before they took part

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17
Q

deception

A

involves misleading participants about the purpose of a study

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18
Q

demand characteristics

A

occur when participants try to make sense of the research situation they are in and try to guess the purpose of the research or try to present themselves in a good way

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19
Q

dependent variable

A

a variable that is measured to tell you the outcome of your study

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20
Q

descriptive statistics

A

analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarise data in a meaningful way

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21
Q

directional hypothesis

A

one tailed hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. boys are more helpful than girls)

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22
Q

double blind design

A

participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspect of the research design

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23
Q

ecological validity

A

The extent to which the findings of a research study are available to the generalised to real life settings

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24
Q

ethical guidelines

A

these are provided by the BPS - they are the ‘rules’ by which all psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research

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25
Q

ethical issues

A

There are three main ethical issues that occur psychological research- deception, lack of informed consent and lack of protection of participants

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26
Q

event sampling

A

a target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs

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27
Q

experimental group

A

the group that received the experimental treatment (e.g. sleep deprivation)

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28
Q

extraneous variable

A

variables that if not controlled may affect the DV and provide a false impression than IV has produced changes when it hasn’t

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29
Q

field experiment

A

an experiment that takes place in the natural setting went where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV

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30
Q

histogram

A

a graph that is used for continuous data (e.g. test scores). there should be no space between the bars, because the data is continuous

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31
Q

hypothesis

A

this is a formal statement or prediction of what the researcher expects to find. It needs to be testable

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32
Q

independent groups design

A

an experimental design where each participant only takes part in one condition of the IV

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33
Q

independent variable

A

the variable that the experimenter manipulates (changes)

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34
Q

informed consent

A

Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to fully understand all aspects of the research before they agree (give consent) to take part.

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35
Q

internal validity

A

the extent to which the results are solely due to changes in the variable being manipulated

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36
Q

interview

A

a self report technique that involves an experiment asking participants questions (generally on a 1 to one basis) and recording their responses

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37
Q

investigator effects

A

these results from the effects of the researchers behaviour and characteristics on an investigation

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38
Q

lab experiment

A

an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV

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39
Q

matched pairs design

A

an experimental design where pairs are participants are matched on important characteristics and one member allocated to each condition of the IV

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40
Q

mean

A

measure of central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a set of data together and dividing by the total number of scores

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41
Q

measures of central tenancy

A

a measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies e.g. mean, median or mode

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42
Q

measures of dispersion

A

a measurement of data that shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the range and the standard deviation

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43
Q

median

A

measure of central tendency calculated by arranging scores in a set of data from lowest to highest and finding the middle score

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44
Q

meta-analysis

A

a technique where rather than conducting new research with the participants, the researchers examined the results of several studies that have already been conducted

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45
Q

mode

A

measure of central tendency which is the most frequently occuring issue in a set of data

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46
Q

natural experiment

A

an experiment where the change in the IV already exists rather than being manipulated by the experimenter

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47
Q

naturalistic observation

A

an observation study conducted in the environment whether behaviour would normally occur

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48
Q

Negative correlation

A

A relationship that exists between two covariables whereas one increases, the otherdecreases

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49
Q

non-directional hypothesis

A

A2 tailed hypothesis that does not predict the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g.girls and boys are different in terms of helpfulness)

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50
Q

nonparticipant observation

A

anobservation where the researcher chooses not to play any part in what is beingobserved

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51
Q

observer bias

A

occurs when the observers know the aims of the studyor the hypothesis and allowed this knowledge to influence theirobservations

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52
Q

open questions

A

questions where there is nofixedresponse and participants can give anyanswerthey like they generate qualitativedata

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53
Q

operationalising variables

A

This means clearly describing the variables (IV and DV)in terms of how theywillbe manipulated(IV) ormeasured (DV)

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54
Q

opportunity sample

A

asampling technique where participants are chosen because they are easilyavailable

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55
Q

order effects

A

order effects can occur in a repeated measures designanrefers to how the positioning oftasksinfluences the outcomee.g.practiseeffector boredomaffecton 2ndtask

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56
Q

overt observation

A

also known asa disclosed observationorthe participants given their permission for the behaviour to beobserved

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57
Q

participant observation

A

an observation all studywhetherresearcheractually joinsthe group or takes part in the situation they areobserving

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58
Q

pilot study

A

asmall scalestudy conducted toensurethe method will work according to plan. If this doesn’t then amendments can be made

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59
Q

Population

A

refers to the large group of individuals that the researcher is interested instudying

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60
Q

positive correlation

A

a relationship exists between two co-variables whereas one increases so does theother

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61
Q

presumptive content

A

asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, if yes, then presume the sample wouldtoo

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62
Q

primary data

A

information that the researcher has collected him/herselffor a specific purposee.g.data from an experiment orobservation

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63
Q

protection of participants

A

participants should be protected from physical or mental health, including stress -risk of harm must be no greater than that whichthey would have been exposed to in everyday inlife

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64
Q

qualitative data

A

descriptive information that is expressed inwords

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65
Q

quantitative data

A

information that can be measured and written down withnumbers

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66
Q

quasi experiment

A

an experiment often conducted in controlled conditions where the IV simplyexistsso there can be no random allocation to theconditions

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67
Q

Questionnaire

A

a set of written questions that participants fill inthemselves

68
Q

random allocation

A

this is how the experiment isdivideparticipants into each experimental condition, to reduce any bias in the distribution of participantcharacteristics

69
Q

random sample

A

a sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of beingselected

70
Q

Range

A

a measure of dispersion whichinvolvessubtracting the lowest score fromahigher scoreona set ofdata

71
Q

reliability

A

Whether something is consistent. In the case of a study, where it isreplicable

72
Q

Repeated measures

A

An experimental design where each participant takes part in both/allconditions of theIV

73
Q

representative sample

A

a sample that closely matches the target populationas a whole interms of key variables and characteristics

74
Q

retrospective consent

A

once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are nothappy

75
Q

right to withdraw

A

participants should be aware that they can leave the study atanytime, even if they have been paid to takepart

76
Q

Sample

A

a group of people that are drawn from the targetpopulationto take part in researchinvestigation

77
Q

Scattergram

A

used to plot correlations where each part of values is plotted against each other to see if there’s a relationship betweenthem

78
Q

secondary data

A

information that someone else is collectede.g.the work of another psychologist or governmentstatistics

79
Q

single blind design

A

participants are not told the true purpose of theresearch

80
Q

social desirability bias

A

participants behaviour is distorted as they modify thisin order tobe seen in a positivelight

81
Q

standard deviation

A

a measure of the average spread of schools around the mean. The greater the standard deviation the more spread out the scoresare

82
Q

standardised instructions

A

the instructions given to eachparticipantsare keptidentical -to help prevent experimenterbias

83
Q

Standardisation

A

the process in which proceduresusedin research or cut the same. Great attention is taken to keep all elements of a procedure identical. Under these circumstances, changes in datacanbe attributed to theIV

84
Q

stratified sample

A

sampling technique where groups of participantsareselected in proportion to their frequency in the targetpopulations

85
Q

structured interview

A

interview whether questions arefixedand the interviewer reads them out and records theresponses

86
Q

systematic sample

A

a sampling technique where every nthperson in a list of the target population isselected

87
Q

target population

A

the group that the researcher draws the sample from Ann wants to be able to generalise the findings to

88
Q

temporal validity

A

refers to how likely it is at thetime periodwhere study was conducted hasinfluencedthefindings and whether they can be generalised to other periods in time

89
Q

thematic analysis

A

A message for analysing the qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within thedata

90
Q

time sampling

A

a way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of fixed timeintervals

91
Q

unstructured interview

A

theinterviewermay have a list of topics or questions, but has extra flexibility toleadthe conversation further, should participant responses lead to deeper/more detaileddiscussion

92
Q

Validity

A

whethersomething measures what is set out to a measure

93
Q

volunteer sample

A

a sampling technique where participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering anadvertisement

94
Q

Zero correlation

A

this means that there is no relationship between the Co variables and the correlationstudy

95
Q

ABC Model

A

Ellis’s explanation for how irrational thoughts affect behaviour A= activating event, B+ beliefs, C= consequences Avoidance The act of staying away from something (e.g.the phobic object or situation)

96
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

Region of the brain involved in the coordination of movement that has been linked toOCD

97
Q

CBT

A

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is a commonly used therapy which involves challenging and replacing irrationalthoughts

98
Q

Cognitive Bias

A

Error in thinking caused by simplified informationprocessing

99
Q

Compulsion

A

An irresistible urge to behave in a certainway

100
Q

COMT Gene

A

Gene which has a variation which results in higher levels of dopamine and this variation is more common in patients withOCD

101
Q

Counter Conditioning

A

Learning a new response to the phobic object/situatione.g.replacing fear with relaxation

102
Q

Cultural Relativism

A

The idea that cultural norms and values are culture specific and no-one culture is superior to anotherculture

103
Q

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

A

Not meeting criteria which suggest you are mentallyhealthy

104
Q

Deviation from Social Norm

A

A behaviour that deviates from social norms is one that is very different from how we would expect people tobehave

105
Q

Dopamine

A

Higher levels of this neurotransmitter have been associated with the compulsions shown by OCDpatients

106
Q

DSM V

A

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition is the standard classification of mental disorders used in the United States.

107
Q

Empirical Disputing

A

REBT technique where the therapist seeks evidence for a person’sthoughts

108
Q

Failure to Function Adequately

A

When a person’s behaviour means they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life

109
Q

Anxiety Hierarchy

A

A list of situations related to the phobic object/situation arranged in order from least to mostfrightening

110
Q

Flooding In-Vitro

A

Behavioural treatment for a phobia which involves imagined exposure to the phobic object/situation without being able toescape

111
Q

Logical Disputing

A

REBT Technique where the therapiesdisputesthe logic of a person’sthoughts

112
Q

Negative Self Schema

A

Negative information we hold about ourselves based on negative past experiences that can lead to cognitivebiases

113
Q

Negative Triad

A

Three types of negative thinking (self, the world and the future) that Beck suggestedoccurautomatically in people who aredepressed

114
Q

Obsession

A

An idea or thought that continually preoccupies or intrudes on a person’s mind.

115
Q

Orbitofrontal cortex

A

A region of the brain which converts sensory information into thoughts and actions- higher activity has been found here in OCDpatients

116
Q

Overgeneralisation

A

Cognitive error where you make a sweeping conclusion from a singleincident

117
Q

REBT

A

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy is a type of CBT based on Ellis’s ABC model

118
Q

Selective attention

A

Focusing on one piece of information while ignoring other information viewed asirrelevant

119
Q

Serotonin

A

Neurotransmitter which regulates mood - lower levels are associated withOCD

120
Q

SERT Gene

A

Genewhich affects the transport of serotonin, causing lower levels of serotonin which is associated withOCD

121
Q

Simple or specific phobia

A

Irrational fear of an object (e.g.spiders) or situation (e.g.flying)

122
Q

Social norm

A

The rules ofbehaviorthat are considered acceptable in a group orsociety

123
Q

SSRIs

A

Antidepressant drugs used to treat OCD which work by preventing the re-absorption and breakdown ofserotonin

124
Q

Statistical infrequency

A

A behaviour that is statistically infrequent does not happen veryoften

125
Q

Systematic desensitisation

A

A behaviour therapy designed to gradually reduce a phobia through the principle of classicalconditioning

126
Q

Two-process model

A

Behavioural explanation for phobias which suggests they are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operantconditioning

127
Q

Active processing

A

Is where the person transforms or manipulates the material that is to be remembered

128
Q

Anxiety

A

State of emotional arousal where there is a feeling or experience of apprehension and uncertainty

129
Q

Articulatory control process

A

Part of the phonological loop that repeats sounds or words to keep them in working memory until they are needed

130
Q

Capacity

A

The amount of information that can be held in memory

131
Q

Central executive

A

Part of working memory that coordinates other components

132
Q

Chunking

A

Method of increasing short-term memory by grouping information into larger units

133
Q

Coding

A

Changing the format of information for use in memory

134
Q

Cognitive interview

A

Interview technique devised to improve the accuracy of witness recall

135
Q

Context-dependent failure

A

Forgetting which occurs because the external cues at recall are different to those at the time of learning

136
Q

Cue-dependent forgetting

A

Method of increasing short-term memory by grouping information into larger units

137
Q

Duration

A

The length of time information remains in memory

138
Q

Episodic buffer

A

Part of working memory which is a temporary store integrating information from the other components

139
Q

Episodic memory

A

Type of long-term memory for information about specific experiences and events in our lives

140
Q

Eyewitness testimony

A

An account given by people of an event they have witnessed

141
Q

Forgetting

A

Failure to retrieve memories

142
Q

Inner scribe

A

Stores information about the physical relationship of items (part of the visuo-spatial sketchpad)

143
Q

Interference theory

A

Memory can be disrupted not only by previous learning but also by what is learned in the future

144
Q

Leading question

A

Question phrased in such a way that it prompts a particular kind of answer

145
Q

Long-term memory

A

Permanent store holding unlimited amounts of information for long periods

146
Q

Misleading information

A

Incorrect information given the an eyewitness after an event

147
Q

Multi-store model

A

Explanation of memory that sees information flowing through a series of storage systems

148
Q

Phonological loop

A

Part of working memory that deals with auditory information

149
Q

Phonological store

A

Part of the phonological loop which stores words heard

150
Q

Post-event discussion

A

A potential source of misleading information where witnesses discuss what they saw afterwards

151
Q

Proactive interference

A

A cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information

152
Q

Procedural memory

A

Long-term memory for “knowing how”

153
Q

Retrieval

A

The recall of stored memory

154
Q

Retrieval failure

A

Difficulties in recall that are due to the absence of the correct retrieval cues

155
Q

Retroactive interference

A

Occurs when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information

156
Q

Schema

A

A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information

157
Q

Semantic memory

A

Type of long-term memory for information about the world that is not linked to particular contexts or events

158
Q

Sensory register

A

Store of sensory information that lasts no more than a few seconds

159
Q

Short-term memory

A

Temporary memory store that holds limited amount of information for a short period of time

160
Q

State-dependent failure

A

Forgetting which occurs because the emotional or physical state at recall is different to that at the time of learning

161
Q

Visual cache

A

Part of the visuo-spatial sketchpad that stores information about form and colour

162
Q

Visuo-spatial sketchpad

A

Part of working memory that deals with visual information

163
Q

Working memory model

A

Model that suggests short-term memory is composed of three, limited capacity stores

164
Q

alternative hypothesis

A

a testable statement that makes predictions about ehat will happen in the experiment (iv will effect dv)

165
Q

directional hypothesis

A

specifies the direction in which the IV will effect the DV (previous research suggests direction)

166
Q

non directional hypothesis

A

where direction of the results is not predicted (no previous research or conclusive evidence)

167
Q

null hypothesis

A

no relationship between the two

Psychology (15 decks)

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