Formal assessment (memory, psychopathology, research methods) Flashcards
Aim
The researcher’s area of interest- what they are looking at (e.g. to investigate helping behaviour)
Bar chart
A graph that shows the data in the form of the categories (e.g. behavious observed) that the researcher wishes to observe
Behavioural categories
Key behaviours or, collections of behaviours, that the researcher conducting the observational will pay attention to an record
Case study
In depth investigation of a single person, group or event, Where data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews)
Closed questions
Questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g. yes/no. They generate quantitative data.
Coding units
These are the categories researchers placed qualitative data into when conducting a content analysis.
Co-variables
the variables investigated in a correlation.
Confidentiality
less agreed beforehand participants have the right to expect that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.
confounding variable
an extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV.
content analysis
Technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written group into categories - converting qualitative data into quantitative data
control group
a group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not expected to the experimental treatment (e.g. allowed to sleep normally)
controlled observation
an observational study where the researchers control some variables - often takes place in a laboratory setting.
correlational analysis
a mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two Co variables are related
counterbalancing
a way of trying to control order effects in a repeated measures design, e.g. half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A
covert observations
also known as an undisclosed observation as the participants do not know their behaviour as being observed
debreifing
after completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant. Aim of debriefing = to return the person to the state s/he was in before they took part
deception
involves misleading participants about the purpose of a study
demand characteristics
occur when participants try to make sense of the research situation they are in and try to guess the purpose of the research or try to present themselves in a good way
dependent variable
a variable that is measured to tell you the outcome of your study
descriptive statistics
analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarise data in a meaningful way
directional hypothesis
one tailed hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. boys are more helpful than girls)
double blind design
participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspect of the research design
ecological validity
The extent to which the findings of a research study are available to the generalised to real life settings
ethical guidelines
these are provided by the BPS - they are the ‘rules’ by which all psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research
ethical issues
There are three main ethical issues that occur psychological research- deception, lack of informed consent and lack of protection of participants
event sampling
a target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs
experimental group
the group that received the experimental treatment (e.g. sleep deprivation)
extraneous variable
variables that if not controlled may affect the DV and provide a false impression than IV has produced changes when it hasn’t
field experiment
an experiment that takes place in the natural setting went where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
histogram
a graph that is used for continuous data (e.g. test scores). there should be no space between the bars, because the data is continuous
hypothesis
this is a formal statement or prediction of what the researcher expects to find. It needs to be testable
independent groups design
an experimental design where each participant only takes part in one condition of the IV
independent variable
the variable that the experimenter manipulates (changes)
informed consent
Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to fully understand all aspects of the research before they agree (give consent) to take part.
internal validity
the extent to which the results are solely due to changes in the variable being manipulated
interview
a self report technique that involves an experiment asking participants questions (generally on a 1 to one basis) and recording their responses
investigator effects
these results from the effects of the researchers behaviour and characteristics on an investigation
lab experiment
an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
matched pairs design
an experimental design where pairs are participants are matched on important characteristics and one member allocated to each condition of the IV
mean
measure of central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a set of data together and dividing by the total number of scores
measures of central tenancy
a measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies e.g. mean, median or mode
measures of dispersion
a measurement of data that shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the range and the standard deviation
median
measure of central tendency calculated by arranging scores in a set of data from lowest to highest and finding the middle score
meta-analysis
a technique where rather than conducting new research with the participants, the researchers examined the results of several studies that have already been conducted
mode
measure of central tendency which is the most frequently occuring issue in a set of data
natural experiment
an experiment where the change in the IV already exists rather than being manipulated by the experimenter
naturalistic observation
an observation study conducted in the environment whether behaviour would normally occur
Negative correlation
A relationship that exists between two covariables whereas one increases, the otherdecreases
non-directional hypothesis
A2 tailed hypothesis that does not predict the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g.girls and boys are different in terms of helpfulness)
nonparticipant observation
anobservation where the researcher chooses not to play any part in what is beingobserved
observer bias
occurs when the observers know the aims of the studyor the hypothesis and allowed this knowledge to influence theirobservations
open questions
questions where there is nofixedresponse and participants can give anyanswerthey like they generate qualitativedata
operationalising variables
This means clearly describing the variables (IV and DV)in terms of how theywillbe manipulated(IV) ormeasured (DV)
opportunity sample
asampling technique where participants are chosen because they are easilyavailable
order effects
order effects can occur in a repeated measures designanrefers to how the positioning oftasksinfluences the outcomee.g.practiseeffector boredomaffecton 2ndtask
overt observation
also known asa disclosed observationorthe participants given their permission for the behaviour to beobserved
participant observation
an observation all studywhetherresearcheractually joinsthe group or takes part in the situation they areobserving
pilot study
asmall scalestudy conducted toensurethe method will work according to plan. If this doesn’t then amendments can be made
Population
refers to the large group of individuals that the researcher is interested instudying
positive correlation
a relationship exists between two co-variables whereas one increases so does theother
presumptive content
asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, if yes, then presume the sample wouldtoo
primary data
information that the researcher has collected him/herselffor a specific purposee.g.data from an experiment orobservation
protection of participants
participants should be protected from physical or mental health, including stress -risk of harm must be no greater than that whichthey would have been exposed to in everyday inlife
qualitative data
descriptive information that is expressed inwords
quantitative data
information that can be measured and written down withnumbers
quasi experiment
an experiment often conducted in controlled conditions where the IV simplyexistsso there can be no random allocation to theconditions
Questionnaire
a set of written questions that participants fill inthemselves
random allocation
this is how the experiment isdivideparticipants into each experimental condition, to reduce any bias in the distribution of participantcharacteristics
random sample
a sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of beingselected
Range
a measure of dispersion whichinvolvessubtracting the lowest score fromahigher scoreona set ofdata
reliability
Whether something is consistent. In the case of a study, where it isreplicable
Repeated measures
An experimental design where each participant takes part in both/allconditions of theIV
representative sample
a sample that closely matches the target populationas a whole interms of key variables and characteristics
retrospective consent
once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are nothappy
right to withdraw
participants should be aware that they can leave the study atanytime, even if they have been paid to takepart
Sample
a group of people that are drawn from the targetpopulationto take part in researchinvestigation
Scattergram
used to plot correlations where each part of values is plotted against each other to see if there’s a relationship betweenthem
secondary data
information that someone else is collectede.g.the work of another psychologist or governmentstatistics
single blind design
participants are not told the true purpose of theresearch
social desirability bias
participants behaviour is distorted as they modify thisin order tobe seen in a positivelight
standard deviation
a measure of the average spread of schools around the mean. The greater the standard deviation the more spread out the scoresare
standardised instructions
the instructions given to eachparticipantsare keptidentical -to help prevent experimenterbias
Standardisation
the process in which proceduresusedin research or cut the same. Great attention is taken to keep all elements of a procedure identical. Under these circumstances, changes in datacanbe attributed to theIV
stratified sample
sampling technique where groups of participantsareselected in proportion to their frequency in the targetpopulations
structured interview
interview whether questions arefixedand the interviewer reads them out and records theresponses
systematic sample
a sampling technique where every nthperson in a list of the target population isselected
target population
the group that the researcher draws the sample from Ann wants to be able to generalise the findings to
temporal validity
refers to how likely it is at thetime periodwhere study was conducted hasinfluencedthefindings and whether they can be generalised to other periods in time
thematic analysis
A message for analysing the qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within thedata
time sampling
a way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of fixed timeintervals
unstructured interview
theinterviewermay have a list of topics or questions, but has extra flexibility toleadthe conversation further, should participant responses lead to deeper/more detaileddiscussion
Validity
whethersomething measures what is set out to a measure
volunteer sample
a sampling technique where participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering anadvertisement
Zero correlation
this means that there is no relationship between the Co variables and the correlationstudy
ABC Model
Ellis’s explanation for how irrational thoughts affect behaviour A= activating event, B+ beliefs, C= consequences Avoidance The act of staying away from something (e.g.the phobic object or situation)
Basal Ganglia
Region of the brain involved in the coordination of movement that has been linked toOCD
CBT
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is a commonly used therapy which involves challenging and replacing irrationalthoughts
Cognitive Bias
Error in thinking caused by simplified informationprocessing
Compulsion
An irresistible urge to behave in a certainway
COMT Gene
Gene which has a variation which results in higher levels of dopamine and this variation is more common in patients withOCD
Counter Conditioning
Learning a new response to the phobic object/situatione.g.replacing fear with relaxation
Cultural Relativism
The idea that cultural norms and values are culture specific and no-one culture is superior to anotherculture
Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
Not meeting criteria which suggest you are mentallyhealthy
Deviation from Social Norm
A behaviour that deviates from social norms is one that is very different from how we would expect people tobehave
Dopamine
Higher levels of this neurotransmitter have been associated with the compulsions shown by OCDpatients
DSM V
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition is the standard classification of mental disorders used in the United States.
Empirical Disputing
REBT technique where the therapist seeks evidence for a person’sthoughts
Failure to Function Adequately
When a person’s behaviour means they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life
Anxiety Hierarchy
A list of situations related to the phobic object/situation arranged in order from least to mostfrightening
Flooding In-Vitro
Behavioural treatment for a phobia which involves imagined exposure to the phobic object/situation without being able toescape
Logical Disputing
REBT Technique where the therapiesdisputesthe logic of a person’sthoughts
Negative Self Schema
Negative information we hold about ourselves based on negative past experiences that can lead to cognitivebiases
Negative Triad
Three types of negative thinking (self, the world and the future) that Beck suggestedoccurautomatically in people who aredepressed
Obsession
An idea or thought that continually preoccupies or intrudes on a person’s mind.
Orbitofrontal cortex
A region of the brain which converts sensory information into thoughts and actions- higher activity has been found here in OCDpatients
Overgeneralisation
Cognitive error where you make a sweeping conclusion from a singleincident
REBT
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy is a type of CBT based on Ellis’s ABC model
Selective attention
Focusing on one piece of information while ignoring other information viewed asirrelevant
Serotonin
Neurotransmitter which regulates mood - lower levels are associated withOCD
SERT Gene
Genewhich affects the transport of serotonin, causing lower levels of serotonin which is associated withOCD
Simple or specific phobia
Irrational fear of an object (e.g.spiders) or situation (e.g.flying)
Social norm
The rules ofbehaviorthat are considered acceptable in a group orsociety
SSRIs
Antidepressant drugs used to treat OCD which work by preventing the re-absorption and breakdown ofserotonin
Statistical infrequency
A behaviour that is statistically infrequent does not happen veryoften
Systematic desensitisation
A behaviour therapy designed to gradually reduce a phobia through the principle of classicalconditioning
Two-process model
Behavioural explanation for phobias which suggests they are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operantconditioning
Active processing
Is where the person transforms or manipulates the material that is to be remembered
Anxiety
State of emotional arousal where there is a feeling or experience of apprehension and uncertainty
Articulatory control process
Part of the phonological loop that repeats sounds or words to keep them in working memory until they are needed
Capacity
The amount of information that can be held in memory
Central executive
Part of working memory that coordinates other components
Chunking
Method of increasing short-term memory by grouping information into larger units
Coding
Changing the format of information for use in memory
Cognitive interview
Interview technique devised to improve the accuracy of witness recall
Context-dependent failure
Forgetting which occurs because the external cues at recall are different to those at the time of learning
Cue-dependent forgetting
Method of increasing short-term memory by grouping information into larger units
Duration
The length of time information remains in memory
Episodic buffer
Part of working memory which is a temporary store integrating information from the other components
Episodic memory
Type of long-term memory for information about specific experiences and events in our lives
Eyewitness testimony
An account given by people of an event they have witnessed
Forgetting
Failure to retrieve memories
Inner scribe
Stores information about the physical relationship of items (part of the visuo-spatial sketchpad)
Interference theory
Memory can be disrupted not only by previous learning but also by what is learned in the future
Leading question
Question phrased in such a way that it prompts a particular kind of answer
Long-term memory
Permanent store holding unlimited amounts of information for long periods
Misleading information
Incorrect information given the an eyewitness after an event
Multi-store model
Explanation of memory that sees information flowing through a series of storage systems
Phonological loop
Part of working memory that deals with auditory information
Phonological store
Part of the phonological loop which stores words heard
Post-event discussion
A potential source of misleading information where witnesses discuss what they saw afterwards
Proactive interference
A cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information
Procedural memory
Long-term memory for “knowing how”
Retrieval
The recall of stored memory
Retrieval failure
Difficulties in recall that are due to the absence of the correct retrieval cues
Retroactive interference
Occurs when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information
Schema
A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information
Semantic memory
Type of long-term memory for information about the world that is not linked to particular contexts or events
Sensory register
Store of sensory information that lasts no more than a few seconds
Short-term memory
Temporary memory store that holds limited amount of information for a short period of time
State-dependent failure
Forgetting which occurs because the emotional or physical state at recall is different to that at the time of learning
Visual cache
Part of the visuo-spatial sketchpad that stores information about form and colour
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Part of working memory that deals with visual information
Working memory model
Model that suggests short-term memory is composed of three, limited capacity stores
alternative hypothesis
a testable statement that makes predictions about ehat will happen in the experiment (iv will effect dv)
directional hypothesis
specifies the direction in which the IV will effect the DV (previous research suggests direction)
non directional hypothesis
where direction of the results is not predicted (no previous research or conclusive evidence)
null hypothesis
no relationship between the two
