Aggression - Paper 3 *****

Question 1

Neural Mechanisms in Aggression

- Limbic System + Two Key Structures?

Answer 1

The Limbic System is a set of brain structures that help to coordinate many of our emotions and motivations (particularly those associated with survival such as fear + aggression).

The two keys structures of the limbic system that are involved in aggression are the:

• Amygdala
• Hippocampus

Question 2

What is the Amygdala in aggression + example?

- Neural Mechanism

Answer 2

The Amygdala quickly evaluates the importance of sensory information and promotes an appropriate response.

If certain areas of the Amygdala are stimulated electronically an animal responds with aggressive behaviour such as snarling.

• In humans, Narabyashi et al (1972) found 43/51 patients whose Amygdala was destroyed through psychosurgery showed reduced aggression.

Question 3

What is the Hippocampus in Aggression + Example?

- Neural Mechanism

Answer 3

Hippocampus is involved in the formation of LT memories and allows an animal to compare conditions of a present threat with similar past experiences.

Impaired Hippocampal functioning may cause the Amygdala to respond inappropriately to sensory stimuli, resulting in aggressive behaviour, as it prevents the nervous system from putting events into a meaningful context.

• E.g. If an animal 🐈‍⬛ has previous been attacked by another animal 🐕, the next time they encounter they’re 🐈‍⬛ is likely to respond with either fear or aggression (whichever is most appropriate).

Question 4

What is Serotonin in Aggression?

- Neural Explanation.

Answer 4

Normal Serotonin levels have a calming inhibitory effect on the neuronal firing in the brain as it inhibits responses to emotional stimuli which makes us angry.

Low levels (particularly in Prefrontal Cortex) removed the inhibitory effect. 
- Individuals are then less able to control impulsive and aggressive responses, this is known as the serotonin deficiency hypothesis. 

Low Serotonin = Low control of aggression = High aggressive responses received by Amygdala = High aggression.

Question 5

Strength of Neural Mechanisms in Aggression.

Answer 5

P - Support from study of violent offenders for the role of Hippocampus in aggression.

E - Left and Right Hippocampal volumes were compared between successful (not been caught) and unsuccessful (been caught) and were assessed using MRI.

E - Found asymmetries in the hippocampus in unsuccessful psychopaths.

L - This means asymmetry might impair ability of Hippcampus and Amygdala to work together so emotional info is not processed correctly and therefore leading to inappropriate responses (aggression).

Question 6

Criticism of Neural Mechanisms in Aggression.

Answer 6

P - Correlation

E - Issue because no way to show cause and effect.

E - E.g. Brain abnormalities could be a cause of aggression or the effect of being aggressive.

L - This highlights the complexity of the relationship between biology and behaviour and suggests that further investigation is required.

Question 7

Hormonal Mechanisms in Aggression

- Testosterone

Answer 7

Studies found that males tend to be more aggressive than females this could be due to gender differences in levels of Testosterone.

• Testosterone is produced by both males and females but males 10x.

Testosterone is thought to influence aggression due to its action of brain areas involved in controlling aggression.

• Highest levels of Testosterone produced in males (15-25), group most likely to commit violent crimes.

Question 8

Strength of Hormonal Mechanisms in Aggression.

Answer 8

P - Supporting evidence is provided by Dabbs (1995)

E - He measured Testosterone levels in 692 adult male prisoner and found higher levels in rapists and violent offenders than burglars and thieves.

E - Same effect in women. High levels found in those with unprovoked violence (started violence) and lowest with those who were defensive (protect themselves).

L - Findings add value to research into testosterone and aggression and shows effects aren’t Androcentric.

Question 9

Criticism of Hormonal Mechanisms in Aggression.

Answer 9

P - Evidence in mixed.

E - Some research shows other hormones are also involved in aggression.

E - Dual Hormone Hypothesis claims high testosterone only leads to aggression when cortisol is low. When cortisol is high then testosterone’s influence on aggression is blocked.

L - Suggests that the combined activity of testosterone and cortisol may be a better predictor of human behaviour than just testosterone.

Question 10

other explanation of neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression.

Answer 10

P - Neural and hormonal mechanisms do not count the social and environmental factors that influence progression.

E - The social learning explanations suggest that aggression is learned from role models in the environment.

E - For example, Bandura found that children who had observed the adult being rewarded, behaved most aggressively, and those who had observed the adult being told off behave least aggressive.

L - This means that neural and hormonal explanations for aggression are limited and do not provide a complete explanation for a aggression.

Question 11

Practical application of neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression.

Answer 11

P - Practical application of research into neural explanations for aggression is the use of medication.

E - The use of drugs that increase serotonin activities also reduces level of aggressive behaviour.

E - Drugs to raise certain levels, such as tryptophan, have been given to juvenile delinquents and unpredictable, institutionalised patients with successful outcomes.

L - This adds value to the research as it brings scientists one step closer to possibly preventing violent tendencies in susceptible individuals.

Question 12

Genetic Factors in Aggression

• Genetic Theory

Answer 12

Proposes that genes are the cause of aggressive behaviour.

• Aggression can be passed from one generation to another through genetic transmission.

Genetically similar individuals are more similar in aggressive tendencies than non related individuals.

Question 13

Genes for Aggression

• MAOA

Answer 13

MAOA-L (low-activity form of MAOA).

MAOA (Monoamine Oxidase A) is an enzyme that breaks down Neurotransmitters (Dopamine).

Low activity (MAOA-L) is associated with aggression.

It results in low production of MAOA enzyme to break down Dopamine, leading to higher levels of Dopamine in the brain causing aggression.

Question 14

Twin studies

Answer 14

Researchers compared the degree of similarity for particular trait, such as aggression between sets of MZ and DZ twins.

Gottesman and McGuffin found accordance rate of 87% for aggressive and anti social behaviour for MZ Twins compared with 72% for DZ twins.

Question 15

Adoption studies

Answer 15

if a positive correlation is found between aggressive behaviour and adopted children and their biological parents. Genetic effect is impied.

However, if a positive correlation in aggression is found between an adopted child and its adoptive parents and environmental effect is applied.

Question 16

supporting evidence for genetic factors in aggression.

Answer 16

P - There is a lot of research evidence to support the role of genetics in aggressive behaviour.

E - For example in Brunner et als Study of a Dutch family. It was found that many of the male members behaved in a particularly violent and aggressive manner and a large proportion of been involved in serious crimes of violence, including rape and arson.

E - These men were found to have an abnormally low levels of MAOA in Their bodies and the low activity variant of the MAOA Gene.

L - This adds to the validity of the role of the MAOA gene in aggression.

Question 17

Contradictory evidence for genetic factors in aggression.

Answer 17

P - If the case progression was wholly genetic, than 100% concordance rate for MZ twins would be expected as they share 100% of their genes.

E - As this is not the case, we must assume that jeans are not the sole cause of aggression. Anna Gene environment interaction may be a better explanation.

E - A second study linking MAOA To aggression involved 500 male children. Researchers discovered a variant of the gene associated with having either high or low levels of MAOA Were significantly more likely to grow up to exhibit anti social behaviour, but only if they had been maltreated as children.

L - This shows that it is the interaction between genes and environment that determines behaviours such as aggression as proposed by the diathesis stress model.

Question 18

Other explanation for genetic factors in aggression.

Answer 18

P - Twin studies are used to support the genetic basis for aggression.

E - It is assumed that all twins share a similar upbringing, and so the only difference between MZ and DZ Twins, is that MZ Share the same genetic inheritance.

E - However, many psychologists suggest that this is not true. MZ Twins share a more similar upbringing than DZ Twins, as they can often be treated as the same person.

L - This suggests that the high concordance rate for MZ Twins is a result of both genetics and environmental factors.

Question 19

What are media influences?

Answer 19

Changes in behaviour that attributed to exposure to media, such as TV or computer games.

Question 20

Violent computer games

Answer 20

Interactive violence in computer games where gamers players play an active role = More aggression.

When watching TV violence, you have a more passive role.

In computer games, the viewer is rewarded for aggression. (operant conditioning)

SLT - Viewers may observe and imitate actions of role models in computer games.

Question 21

Longitudinal studies in media influences on aggression.

Answer 21

P - One strength of longitudinal studies is that they’re able to observe real life patterns of behaviour and document both short term and long term effects.

E - For example, Anderson et al Surveyed 430 children between age 7 and nine at two points during the school year.

E - Children who had high exposure to violent video games became more verbally and Physically aggressive and less pro social. (As rated by themselves, their peers and their teachers)

L - This increases the ecological validity of research into media influences and aggression.

Question 22

Lab experiments in media influences on aggression.

Answer 22

P - One strength of the laboratory experiments is that they allow us to establish a casual link between violent computer games and aggressive behaviour.

E - Lab experiments have found short term increases and levels of physiological aroused hostile feelings and aggressive behaviour following violent gameplay compared to non violent gameplay.

E - Aggressive behaviour S if behaviour cannot be studied directly as this is not permitted on ethical grounds, so other forms of behaviour must be used instead. For example, one study found that participants blasted their opponents with white noise For longer and rated themselves higher on the state hostility game after playing a violent computer game, compared to those who played an non violent puzzle game.

L - This suggests the type of game played affects level of aggression.

Question 23

Explanations of Media Influences: Disinhibition.

Answer 23

Normal restraints are loosened after exposure to violent video games as aggression becomes normalised.

Exposure to violent video games can legitimise the use of violence by the individual.

They don’t see the punishment of violent behaviour.

Question 24

Strength of Disinhibition as an Explanation of Media Influence.

Answer 24

P- disinhibition more likely where viewer isn’t exposed to negative consequences of violent behaviour.

E- Goranson (1969) showed a film of boxing match with two alternate endings.

E- One had no consequences, another where loser of fight took beating and died. More likely to behave aggressively if they didn’t see negative consequences.

L- supports suggestion that disinhibition more likely when violent media understood or has no consequences.

Question 25

Criticism of Disinhibition as an Explanation of Media Influence.

Answer 25

P- likelihood of disinhibition determined by factors relating to viewers and context of viewing.

E- younger children more likely to be affected as drawn into violent media without considering notives or consequences.

E- children growing up in households with stronger disinhibition effect due to physical punishment and identify with violent heroes.

L- demonstrated relationship between media violence and disinhibition due to individuals and social characteristics.

Question 26

Explanations of Media Influence: Desensitisation.

Answer 26

Reduced anxiety to media violence as a result of exposure.

Reduction in physical arousal when exposed to real violence. Having watched media violence.

Desensitised individuals are less likely to notice violence in real life and feel less sympathy for the victim.

Question 27

strength of desensitisation as an explanation of media influence

Answer 27

P- support by Carnagey (2007)

E- played either violent of non-violent video game for 20 mins then 10 min clip of real violence. Heart rare and skin conductance response monitored.

E- those that played violent game had lower hr and skin conductance while viewing video.

L- demonstrated physiological desensitisation to violence.

Question 28

critisism of desensitisation as an explanation of media influence

Answer 28

P- desensitisation can be adaptive for individuals. troops have desensitisation which is beneficial for combat.

E- desensitisation to violent stimuli can be detrimental for individual and society. Busman and Anderson (2009) suggests worrying consequences with desensitisation to violent media.

E- violent media exposure can reduce helping behaviour that might otherwise be offered to others in distress.

L- people exposed to media violence become ‘comfortably numb’ to the pain and suffering of others. they are less helpful and relationship between desensitisation and aggression is mixed.

Question 29

Cognitive Priming as an Explanation of Media Influence

Answer 29

termporary increase in access of thoughts and ideas, thoughts and ideas due to exposure to violent media.

When they are primed by a similar stimulus in real life context they are more likely to be aggressive at it’s at the forefront of their mind.

Question 30

Strength of cognitive priming as an explanation of media influence.

Answer 30

P - Bushman tested the cognitive priming hypothesis that exposure to violent media makes aggressive thoughts more accessible to viewers.

E - In this study, undergraduate participants watched either a 15 minute segment of a violent film or a non violent film.

E - Participants who watched the violent film subsequently had faster reaction. Grimes too aggressive words than those who had seen the non violent film. Video content did not, however, influenced reaction times turn on aggressive words.

L - This suggests that exposure to violent media primes memories related to aggression.

Question 31

Contradictory evidence for. Cognitive priming as an explanation of media influences.

Answer 31

P – Atkin suggests that film or game relaism is an important factor in the relationship between exposure to violent media and the priming of aggressive thoughts and behaviours.

E - Atkin found that higher levels of aggression resulted from the viewing of more realistic or realistically perceived violence.

E - The fictional violence in some computer games, for example, may not have the same primary effects as in games with more realistic violence.

L - This suggests that exposure to more realistic and intense forms of aggressive versus cartoon or animated films regression may influence the types and intensity of activated thoughts and ideas which may then manifest themselves in different ways.

Question 32

Practical application of media influences on aggression

Answer 32

P – introduction of age restrictions on computer games

E – All games are age-rated by the Video Standards Council and retailers sell titles with ratings, 12, 15 or 18 years to children below the limits will be subjected to prosecution.

E – Games rated 19-years and over if there is a ‘gross’ level of violence likely to make the viewer feel a sense of revulsion.

L – This means that the influence of media should be contained and not affect children’s levels of aggression.

Question 33

Issues and debates of media influences on aggression

Answer 33

P – The relationship between media influences and aggression is deterministic as it suggestes playing violent video games leads to an increase in aggression.

E – However, many studies in this area are correlational, particularly in longitudinal studies.

E – If a positive correlation between playing violent computer games and aggressive behaviour is found we cannot conclude that playing violent computer games causes people to become more aggressive. Some people may already be aggressive.

L – This means that a major limitation of this method is the inability to draw cause and effect conclusions about media influences and aggression.