Relationships

Question 1

What’s sexual selection

Answer 1

traits which increase reproductive success,
eg aggression (in males) and child bearing hips (in women) give an
evolutionary advantage. Those who show these traits are more likely to
survive and pass on the genes responsible.

Question 2

Inter-sexual selection
.

Answer 2

Certain traits increase attractiveness and thereby induce members of the opposite sex to mate with them.

Question 3

Intra-sexual selection

Answer 3

Certain traits enable competition with members of the same sex e.g. strength enables males to compete
successfully for females.

Question 4

Male strategy example

Answer 4

Sneak copulation – males mate with females other than their partners if given the opportunity, as it
increases their chances of reproductive success. They want to have as much offspring as possible and continue the bloodline

Question 5

Female strategy example

Answer 5

Sexy sons hypothesis – females select attractive males as they will produce sons with the same attractive
features, increasing their sons’ and thus their own reproductive success.

Question 6

Evaluation for Evolutionary Explanations for Partner Preferences

Answer 6

☺ Research to support the evolutionary explanation for partner preferences was conducted by Buss
(1989). He carried out a survey on over 10,000 participants from 37 countries and found that males
prefer young, physically attractive females, whereas females prefer resource rich, ambitious males.
These findings reflect sex differences in sexual selection, therefore supporting predictions of partner
preferences made by the evolutionary explanation.

 In addition, the evolutionary explanation for partner preferences lacks temporal validity. In modern
society the expectations of males and females are less stereotyped. For example, women are more
autonomous so less dependent on finding a man with resources to support them. Furthermore, there
has been a huge increase in single women having children. Therefore, evolutionary explanations of
partner preferences may not be applicable to the present day.

Biological dtermism , unconscious ideas, lack free will

Question 7

Factors affecting attraction

Answer 7

Self disclosure
Filter theory
Physical attractiveness

Question 8

Factors affecting attraction- self disclosure

Answer 8

Self-disclosure refers to revealing personal information about yourself.
It predicts indivs gradually reveal their inner self to someone else going from
superficial information and then deeper info

• it increases attractiveness and closeness and by revealing ur true self it invites the partner to reciprocate in a rewarding way which deepens the intimacy and rs

Question 9

Self disclosure AO3

Answer 9

☺ Research to support was conducted by Sprecher and Hendrick. They
studied heterosexual dating couples found strong correlations between measures of
satisfaction and self-disclosure (both theirs and their partner’s). Men and women who used self-
disclosure and those who believed their partners did likewise were more satisfied with, and
committed to their romantic relationships. Therefore, supporting self-disclosure as a factor
affecting attraction in romantic relationships

d - Cultural bias – Self-disclosure patterns vary across cultures. For example, Western cultures (individualistic) tend to disclose more personal information than collectivist cultures like Japan or China. This suggests self-disclosure is not universally beneficial. Findings can’t be Generlised to collectivist cultures

Question 10

Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical attractiveness (AO1)

Answer 10

Based on an evolutionary theory. found ppl with symmetrical faces
are rated as more attractive.Bc it may be a signal of genetic fitness as its difficult
to fake facial symmetry.

Women with neotenous (baby-face) features eg separated large eyes and a small nose are seen
as more attractive because they trigger a protective and caring instinct

Found physical attractive ppl are rated more successful sociable and kind compared to unattractive ppl (halo effect)

Matching hypothesis - ppl will get w someone who has the same lvl of attractiveness as themselves

Question 11

Factors affecting attraction
ao3

Answer 11

D - alternate explanations, for it which is self disclosure

A - In addition, there are many similarities across cultures when studying physical attractiveness as a
factor affecting attraction in romantic relationships. Large eyes, prominent cheekbones, small nose and
high eyebrows were rated attractive by Hispanic and Asian males. Furthermore, American and Korean
students judged physically attractive people to be more trustworthy, friendly and mature. This therefore
means it is possible to generalise findings from western cultures to non-western cultures as they have
displayed similarities when investigating physical attractiveness as a factor affecting attraction in
romantic relationships.

 Furthermore, research into physical attractiveness as a factor affecting attraction in romantic
relationships is often carried out using self-reports (questionnaires and interviews) which could lead to
social desirability bias eg . Seeming cocky or superficial

Question 12

Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter theory (AO1)

Answer 12

Filter Theory explains how people develop romantic relationships by filtering potential partners based on different criteria over time. It’s split into 3 stages

Question 13

Social demography

Answer 13

1. Social Demography – the first filter, individs are more likely to form relationships with those who share similar social backgrounds (e.g., age, ethnicity, religion, location, and social class). Proximity and accessibility play a role in initial attraction.

Question 14

Similarity in attitudes

Answer 14

2. Similarity in Attitudes – As the relationship progresses, partners evaluate whether they share similar values, beliefs, and interests. This is crucial in the early stages of a relationship, as having the same attitudes promotes deeper connection and reduces conflicts.

Question 15

Complementarity

Answer 15

3. Complementarity – In long-term relationships, individuals seek partners whose traits complement their own. For example, one partner might be more dominant while the other is more nurturing. This balance enhances relationship stability and satisfaction.

Question 16

Ao3 to filter theory

Answer 16

❌ Cultural bias – The theory is based on Western, individualistic cultures where people have free will to choose partners, so it may not apply to collectivist cultures where parents choose their own filters to their children through arranged marriages.
❌ Lack of temporal validity – this theory was made 1962 Online dating has changed how people meet, making social demography less relevant.
❌Alternate explanations eg physical attractiveness

✅ Supporting evidence – Kerckhoff & Davis (1962) found that attitude similarity was important in short-term relationships, whereas complementarity was crucial for long-term couples.

Question 17

Social exchange theory (SET)

Answer 17

An economic theory of relationships that considers how parties exchange rewards and costs.
Homan suggested that relationships involve rewards BUT ALSO costs (e.g. money, time, and emotional
distress). He suggests individuals are attracted to those who offer rewards.and an indiv seeks to maximise reward and minimise cost

If rewards outweigh the costs, there is PROFIT. Vice versa, there is loss, which leads to dissatisfaction.
Therefore a relationship where the rewards exceed the costs and is mutually beneficial will be
maintained.

Question 18

What are comparison levels (apart of SET ao1)

Answer 18

This develops from
our past relationships and we use this to compare with our current relationship rewards, it’s the amount of reward u believe u deserve to get

Question 19

What are the comparison levels of alternatives part of SET

Answer 19

We compare our rewards and costs in our current
relationships compared to potential ones.

Question 20

Ao3 to SET

Answer 20

Research has shown the social economic theory doesn’t consider altruism and only applies to rs where couples ‘keep score’ and couples can be happy to provide and care for their partner without caring about the profits (communal couple) . Thus the SET ignores doing nice things for someone else out basic kindness and simplifies it to profit and loss , so this theory can only be applied to certain rs types (the exchange couple) where couples score keep about who’s winning and loosing

Disadv- there are alternate theory’s to be considered

SET also shown to work better for explaining how relationships last, rather than how they start. Rusbult asked ppt to complete questionnaires over a 7 month period noting the costs and rewards in their rs it was found set didn’t explain the honey moon stage where balances of exchanges are ignored but later on in the rs this is when ppl question is the rs is worth it based on the costs and rewards

Question 21

The Equity Theory (Walster) is another economic model .

Answer 21

the idea of fairness for each partner, Each partner
should experience a balance between their cost/effort and their benefit/reward. profit levels should be the same, if
there is inequity then there will be dissatisfaction

If someone is under benefited and the partner is over benefitting this is a period of imbalance , they can negotiate trade offs to achieve fairness, this is realignment

Question 22

Ao3 equity theory

Answer 22

☺ Research comes from Dainton who studied 219 individuals in romantic
relationships. findings : those in rs of perceived inequity had low rs
satisfaction & indivs were motivated to return to an equitable state to
maintain the relationship, giving further support for the importance of realignment. This suggests that
equity is one of the main factors in relationship satisfaction and maintenance supporting the equity
theory as a theory or romantic relationships.

Disadv - may not apply to all cultures. Research found
there are culture differences in the link between equity and satisfaction. Couples from an
individualist culture (USA) considered their relationships to be most satisfying when the relationship
was equitable whereas partners in a collectivist culture (Jamaica) were most satisfied when they were
overbenefitting. This was true of both men and women, so cannot be explained by gender differences.
This suggest that the theory is not universal in nature when explaining romantic relationships.

Disadv - alternate explanations to rs

Question 23

Rusbult’s Investment model of commitment, satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment.
AO1

Answer 23

Emphasises the importance of commitment in relationships , commitment depends on 3 factors:
1. Satisfaction- the degree to which the partner meets the individual’s needs, eg ) sexual

2. Comparison with alternatives – eg the extent to which an alternative partner could better fulfil your
   emotional and sexual needs. If you believe they cannot be, then the commitment to the relationship is
   stronger. Better alternatives = less satisfaction.
3. Investment size – This refers to the amount and importance of the rewards associated with a relationship.
   There are two types of investment , direct and indirect . Intrinsic investment refers to resources put directly into the relationship) e.g. time . Extrinsic investment (refers to investments which did not previously feature in the relationship which
   are now closely associated with it) e.g. shared friends,

Question 24

High satisfaction + no better alternative + a larger investment size

Answer 24

Increased lvl of commitment to the rs

Question 25

Ao3 to rusbult

Answer 25

☺ Research carried out by Rusbult gave the investment model scale (IMS) to student participants in heterosexual relationships. She found that commitment in relationships was positively correlated with satisfaction level, negatively correlated with the quality of alternatives and positively correlated with investment size. This was also given to participants in homosexual relationships and participants in marital relationships and the same findings into all three factors were found. Suggesting that Rusbult’s investment model can be used as a theory to explain a variety of romantic relationships. Critisim is that research is correlational cause and effect cannot be established between commitment and the three factors. It cannot be proven that the three factors (satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment size) cause commitment in a relationship. It may actually be the case that because someone is committed in a relationship they feel they want to invest more. Therefore this decreases the internal validity Disadv- alternate explanation

Question 26

Duck’s Phase Model of relationship breakdown

Answer 26

Duck suggested that when relationships breakdown they go through a series of phases. With each stage there is a ‘threshold’ (a point at which their perception of the relationship changes – usually for the worse)

Question 27

What are the phases

Answer 27

Intrapsychic phase – one member of the couple identifies the problem (s) but doesn’t talk about them with the partner, they can stay with them for a while. Threshold – “ I can’t stand this anymore” Dyadic phase – they confront their partner to discuss the problem and negotiate a solution. Threshold – “ I would be justified in withdrawing” Social Phase – the breakdown has happened and other people are told/it becomes public. There is a negotiation about practicalities i.e. division of assets, child care responsibilities etc Grave Dressing Phase- this is where we justify our decision, tell our own version of events to enlist support and to ensure we leave the relationship with low levels of blame which we could take to the next relationship. Threshold – “I am ready to start my new life”

Question 28

Ao3 to duck

Answer 28

☺ Duck’s phase model has practical applications as it has been used to create a prevention model for relationship counselling to repair relationships. So based on the course of the breakup it is possible for intervention at the first two phases before the actual break-up. For example, the counsellor could encourage an open and calm discussion in the dyadic stage which may be a messy confrontation if done outside of a counsellor’s office. Therefore research into this area has had valuable implications for applied psychology which can be used to benefit society when explaining the breakdown of romantic relationships.  Moreover, a further limitation is that Duck’s phase model can be criticised for lacking cultural relativism as most of the research is carried out in Western (individualist) cultures. In some cultures arranged marriages tend to be more permanent and will involve their families in a crisis which this model cannot explain. For example, they will speak to their family about a problem before their partner.

Question 29

Virtual relationships in social media

Answer 29

Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) has encouraged online and virtual relationships through many techniques such as email, instant messaging and social networking sites e.g. Facebook

Question 30

Theory 1: The Hyper-personal Model of Self-disclosure in Virtual Relationships

Answer 30

theory argues self-disclosure is more likely to occur in virtual relationships than face-to- face relationships. Due to high levels of excitement at the start this leads to self-disclosure occurring a lot quicker than in face-to-face relationships, and therefore virtual relationships can become a lot more intimate, a lot sooner. Selective Self-presentation – In virtual relationships, people have a lot more control over their online image compared to their image in the real world). This can be heavily manipulated Anonymity -When others are unaware of your identity

Question 31

Theory 2: Reduced Cues Theory

Answer 31

virtual relationships do not work as well as face to face ones because there are a lack of cues we normally depend on in face-to-face interactions e.g. body language. These rs therefore more likely to involve blunt and even aggressive communication. Which is going to lead to an individual being less willing to self-disclose

Question 32

The effects of absence of gating in virtual relationships – AO1

Answer 32

Face-to-face relationships in the modern world can experience obstacles that can affect the early development of a relationship between two people such as, physical attractiveness, social anxiety, ppl can misrepresent themselves in online attractions Bc online rs have less obstacles self disclosure can occur faster so they can reach deeper lvls of emotions faster

Question 33

AO3 - Virtual relationships in social media

Answer 33

☺ Research to support the hyper-personal model of self-disclosure in virtual rs found that in virtual rs people asked more intimate and direct questions very quickly, unlike in face-to-face relationships there was a lot more ‘small talk’. This supports that self-disclosure can occur a lot quicker and easier in virtual relationships as opposed to face to face relationships. D - Critics could argue non-verbal communication is not absent from virtual relationships, but that cues are just different. For example, waiting too long to reply to a message may be seen as a snub and emojis can be seen as a substitute for facial expression and intonation. Therefore reducing the validity of reduced cues as a theory of self disclosure in virtual relationships.

Question 34

Parasocial rs

Answer 34

Parasocial relationships are one-sided relationships where one person extends emotional energy, interest and time while the other person is completely unaware of their existence e.g. a celebrity.

Question 35

Levels of parasocial relationships

Answer 35

Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS), which is a questionnaire that identifies three levels of parasocial relationships. The higher the score the more intense the rs

Question 36

Level 1 – Entertainment Social Level 2 – Intense-Personal Level 3 - Borderline Pathological

Answer 36

This is the least intense level of parasocial relationships. Celebrities are viewed as sources of entertainment and individuals may discuss them often with like-minded friends. when an indivi has strong feelings for a celebrity and may appear ‘obsessed’ . Individuals have feel strong personal connection towards the celebrity, just as they would for a real-life relationship. This is the strongest level of celebrity worship where an individual has uncontrollable fantasies and displays extreme or delusional behaviours towards that celeb . Eg ) stalking

Question 37

Absorption Addiction Model (AO1)

Answer 37

model says people pursue parasocial relationships due to poor psychological health and deficiencies in their own life. They worship celebrities because it allows them to escape from reality and gives them a sense of fulfilment whilst strengthening their personal identity.

Question 38

Due to the addictive nature, parasocial relationships can escalate through a series of stages. Absorption and addiction

Answer 38

Absorption - The individual has issues with their own sense of personal identity so becomes absorbed in the celebrities life in order to gain their own sense of worth, identity and happiness, intense personel Addiction: The individ needs to sustain their commitment to the relationship by feeling a stronger and closer involvement with the celebrity. The parasocial rs becomes all consuming. leads to more extreme and delusional behaviour. Boaderline pathological - if a personal life crisis occurs the person can then move to the next lvl of a parasocial rs

Question 39

Absorption Addiction Model (AO3)

Answer 39

Op

Question 40

Attachment Theory (AO1)

Answer 40

Findings from Hazen and Shaver’s Love Quiz suggest that insecure resistant attachment types will fear abandonment in future relationships and it is these individuals who are most likely to form parasocial relationships. As parasocial rs don’t bring fear of rejection or disappointment. People with secure attachments are able to develop loving two-way relationships in real face-to-face relationships and have little need for parasocial relationships insecure avoidant attachments have difficulty trusting others and therefore indulge in behaviours designed not to create intimacy

Question 41

Attachment theory AO3

Answer 41

A - Research to support comes from Cole and Leets who investigated individual’s attachment style and their engagement in parasocial relationships. They found that individuals with an insecure-resistant attachment style were more likely to engage in parasocial relationships with their favourite TV personality compared to insecure-avoidant individuals who were less likely to engage in such relationships. This supports the attachment theory as an explanation of parasocial relationships as it emphasises the importance of attachment type and relationship style D - All research based on retrospective data as individuals are asked about their attachment type with their primary caregiver in infancy. This requires participants to look back on old memories which mean they could have forgotten information or lied to make their childhood to appear better to the researcher (social desirability). This could reduce the internal validity of research into attachment theory when explaining parasocial relationships. D - ALTERNATE EXPLANATION IS the absorption addiction model