Forensics

Question 1

Offender profiling top down approach:

Answer 1

Profilers who use this method match evidence from the crime scene and other details of the crime into pre existing categories. (Disorganised and organised)

Question 2

Organised vs disorganised offenders

Answer 2

O - plan crime in advance, above avr intelligence ,high degree of control , usually married with children
D - spontaneous, body usually at the scene, unskilled work,

Question 3

4 stages to constructing an fbi profile

Answer 3

1. Data assimilation
2. Crime scene classification org/disorg
3. Crime reconstruction (seq of events)
4. Profile generation (physical characteristics)

Question 4

Ao3 to the top down approach

Answer 4

Top down approach is based on poor methodology, a biased sample of 36 sexually motivated serial killers were interviewed , very unrepresentative, also tp profiling is too simplistic as its found offenders aren’t organised and disg they can be both

Top down approach is useful by police , out of 184 82% said it’s useful

Question 5

What is the bottom up approach

Answer 5

Profile is data driven and based on evidence from the crime scene and the profile becomes more detailed as the offence is studied in more depth , not put into categories like td

Question 6

Bottom up approach investigative psychology

Answer 6

1. Statistical data base - details from crime scene r compared to typical offender beh
2. Interpersonal coherence - ppl who are consistent in their beh there’ll be links in the crime
3. Forensic awareness - how much the offender has aimed to cover their tracks
4. Sig of time and place - positioning and timing of crimes may give clues to where the perpetrator may live

Question 7

Bottom up approach geographical profiling

Answer 7

Based on spatial consistency, - focuses on location of crime
Offenders are classed as marauders (commit crimes close to home ) or commuters (travel away from home to offend )

Question 8

Bottom up approach offender profiling a03

Answer 8

:) can be applied to a much wider range of crimes , diff crimes can be profiled using this method , giving it greater external validity as a method. Also it’s based on more scientific methods than the top down because bottom up relies on statistical anylsys ans psychological theory giving it more strength as a method

:( only focuses on possible location of offenders home, although this is important there are other considerations that need to be made like the psychological characteristics (geographical profiling only concentrates on location therefore limiting the effectiveness of geographical profiling)

Question 9

Biological approach of offending behaviour and historical (lombroso)

Answer 9

Focuses on the idea that all offender beh is due to biological factors (nature) instead of our environment (nurture)
-L suggested criminals are genetic throwbacks (a primitive sub species who are biologically diff to non criminals)
-he proposed criminals lack evolutionary development they’re savage and can’t adjust to modern society so they inevitably turn to crime
-L states criminals are biologically determined (certain features can make u diff to a non criminal like curly hair)

Question 10

Ao3 of the historical approach to explaining offending behaviour (atavistic)

Answer 10

:( biological determinism, theory states indivs are controlled by internal factors such as facial characteristics which would thus classify them as a criminal . Neglects role of free will and makes indivs think they have no control on if they’re a. Criminal or not. Also Racism cos it says dark skin ppl r criminals (social sensitivity)

:) at the time it was believed criminals committed crimes due to ‘wickedness ‘ and demonic possession whereas L’s work had more scientific biological explanations to it so it was something diff

Question 11

Biological explanations of offending behaviour
Concordance ?

Answer 11

-Genetic explanations suggest would be offenders inherit a gene which predisposes them to commit a crime
-The likelihood if one person in a pair is a criminal then their twin is also likely to become one

Question 12

Genetic and neural explanations to offending behaviour - ao3

Answer 12

:) scientific methods, based on objective and empirical techniques such as mri and pet scans increases internal validity of research
:( biologically deterministic , lack of free will leaving indivs thinking they jabs no control over their beh and they will be a criminal if they have a lack of activity im their pre frontal cortec

Question 13

Candidate genes

Answer 13

Genes which cause specific behaviour
Eg MAOA controls break down of dopamine and serotonin in the brain and has been linked to aggression
CDH13 is linked to substance abuse and attention deficit disorder

Question 14

Biological explanations of offending behaviour : neural
What’s APD disorder

Answer 14

Neural explanations focus on neurochemistry and activity of brain regions
-associated with reduced emotional responses and lack of empathy, many criminals have this

Question 15

Indivs with APD…

Answer 15

Have reduced activity in the pre frontal cortex which can help explain why ppl with APD have a lack of empathy

Question 16

Mirror neurons - neural

Answer 16

Empathy is controlled by mirror neurons in the brain and indivs with APD aren’t WITHOUT empathy but may have a neural switch that can be turned on and off unlike the normal brain which is permanently on

Question 17

Eynsenck believed

Answer 17

All personality types including a criminals personality type have an innate biological basis
-Indivs inherit a type of nervous system which predisposes them to offending

Question 18

Eysenck proposed personality traits vary along three dimensions

Answer 18

A typical offender is Neurotic , extravert AND psychotic and would therefore score high lvls of psychoticism
N - due to a reactive sympathetic nervous system some ppl react swiftly to stressful situations leading to unpredictable behaviour such as crime

Extroversion - under arroused nervous system , indiv wants to seek excitement so may do this thru committing crime to cause stimulation

Psychoticism - prone to aggression and lack a conscience more likely to commit crime as there’s less holding them back

Question 19

The role of socialisation

Answer 19

Eysenck proposed it’s not just certain personality traits but also interaction with the environment that can cause criminality , he claimed ppl high with PEN were less easily conditioned so don’t learn to improve beh

Question 20

Ao3 eysenks theory of criminal personality

Answer 20

:) ties in with the biological explanations to Criminals as it recognises personality may also have a genetic basis to it . Eg there’s research into apd making indivs Incapable of empathy which includes brain structure, whereas eyesneck used activities of the nervous system

:( hard determinism as it suggests indivs are controlled by their internal facotrs such as activity of their nervous system , neglecting the role of free will and leaving indivs feeling as though they have no control over their beh

Question 21

Which research was put forth for eynsenks theory

Answer 21

A longitudinal study monitored 282 , 14 years over 2 yrs , findings showed pyschoticism was the highest factor of later offending

Question 22

Psychodynamic explanations of offending beh

Answer 22

• states the possibility of becoming an offender comes from early childhood experiences
  -bowlby suggested extended periods of separation from mother within the critical period results in pyscholgical damage such as affectionless psychopathy. (Inability to experience guilt)

Question 23

3 types of inadequate superego which could occur if there’s a problem with how the superego develops during the phallic stage

Answer 23

1. Weak superego - if same sex parent is absent during phallic stage , child can’t internalise a fully formed superego, making them more criminally inclined as they experience less guilt.
2. Deviant superego - same sex parent already holds deviant morals , meaning child internalises them too
3. Overharsh superego - if parents are harsh it can lead to a child feeling guilt most the time, which may lead the child to perform criminal acts to satisfy the superegos need to be punished

Question 24

Ao3 - psychodynamic explanations of offending behaviour

Answer 24

:( research don’t use scientific methods, bc concepts of having weak or deviant superego are abstract and can’t be objectively and empirically tested and falsified . Decreases internal validity of psychodynamic explanations of offending beh

:) 44 juvenile thieves and non juv thieves were researched by bowlby, 14 thieves fitted description of affectionless psychopathy , 12 had experienced long term separation which would’ve impacted their attachment , therefore providing evidence to support the pyschdynamkc explanation for beh

Question 25

Differential association

Answer 25

Sutherland proposed criminal behaviour is learnt thru socialisation
-offending depends on the values and norms of the offenders social group
- offending is more likely to occur when their social group value pro criminal beh

Question 26

Differential association reinforcement

Answer 26

Reinforcement also effects offending behaviour, if rewards for crime are greater than the rewards for not committing crime
-criminal role models would provide opportunities to model criminal beh providing vicarious reinforcement

Question 27

Why do so many ppl released from prison go on to re offend

Answer 27

DA - inmates may learn techniques from more experienced criminals through imitation

Question 28

Ao3 on differential association

Answer 28

:( critics cold argue there are diff reasons for offending beh eg neural explanation states reduced activity in pre frontal cortex can lead to APD and thus criminality, thus stating criminal beh may NOT be from learning pro criminal attitudes but something an indiv is born with. Also Sutherland said those from poor backgrounds will become criminals which neglects the role of free will and present ideas of social sensitivity as it states some indivs are meant to become criminals and can’t control their beh. Thus weakening the ideas related to DA

:) in research by mednick boys adopted by criminal parents were more likely to offend than those boys adopted by non criminal parents . 14.7 and 13.5% . Increasing the strength of DA

Question 29

What is cognitive distortion

Answer 29

Offenders have a dysfunctional way of thinking about their offence that serves to legitimise their beh and maintain a positive view of themself

Question 30

A type of cognitive distortion is hostile attribution bias

Answer 30

This is the misinterpretation of another persons actions as aggressive when they’re not, this can lead to offending behaviour bc the offender may assume others r being confrontational when they’re not so they would blame the victim and commit a crime against them

Question 31

What’s a a second type of cognitive distortion

Answer 31

Minimalisation - an attempt to downplay or deny the seriousness of a crime and trivialise the importance of the act they’ve committed. The offender does this to avoid feelings of guilt

Question 32

Ao3 to cognitive distortions

Answer 32

:) research to support involved a sample of child molesters where 35% argued saying the crime they committed was non sexual and they were just being affectionate. This supports the idea minimalisation may underlie offending beh. Improving external validity of C.D as an explanation of offending beh

:( there are alternative explanations for criminal beh such as the genetic explanation which states criminal, beh is due to candidate genes such as MAOA has been linked to aggression. Thus criminal behaviour may not be soemthijf whjch is caused by cognitive distortions but something an individual is born with. Showing cognitive isn’t the only explanation to offending beh

Question 33

Cognitive explanations to offending behaviour. Levels of moral reasoning

Answer 33

Kholberg believed criminals have diff lvls of moral development in comparison to non criminals
Kohlberg created a moral dilemma paradigm which was a series of moral dilemma questions he gave to 72 Boys aged 10-16 to investigate what stage they were at in terms of their moral development

Findings ; criminals more like to be at pre conventional morality lvl of development which focuses on punishment orientation and reward orientation , so indivs may commit a crime if they think they can get away with it

Question 34

Levels of moral reasoning ao3 cognitive explanation to offending beh

Answer 34

:( research has gender bias and an unrepresentative sample size, findings can’t be generalised beyond target population which weakens the cognitive explanation to offending beh

:) theory brings practical applications, the principle of the theory is that crimes r associated with lower levels of development so intervention programmes can be created which aim to increases offenders lvls of reasoning ,

Question 35

What is custodial sentencing

Answer 35

When an offender is guilty in court they spend time in prison as a punishment

Question 36

What are the four aims of custodial sentencing

Answer 36

1. Deterrence - prison is seen as unpleasant to put the indiv off the idea of committing crimes or to put off other potential offenders
2. Incapacitation - the offender can’t commit a crime as they’re in prison so it keeps ppl safe
3. Retribution - criminal is made to pay for their criminal beh. It’s like society’s way of revenge
4. Rehabilitation- aim is to change a criminal so they go back into society reformed . Eg seeking education

Question 37

What is recidivism

Answer 37

Re offending

Question 38

Ao3 of custodial sentencing

Answer 38

:) prisons may provide an opportunity for training and treatment,to offenders. Many prisoners can do education programmes whilst in prison increasing their chances of finding employment which can contribute to the economy and also reduce their chances of recidivism.thus allowing custodial sentencing to be an effective effect of fixing offending beh

:( some ppl don’t consider custodial sentencing to be an effective deterrent. Prison is portrayed to be dangerous and boring however evidence suggests some prisoners would rather be in prison than their own homes when they r also provided with meals . Thus weakening custodial sentencing as a way of changing offender beh

Question 39

recidivism evidence

Answer 39

14 prisons in England and whales recorded re offending rates of over 70% (can be ao3 showing custodial sentencing isn’t effective)
Norwegian prisons have some of the lowest rates of recidivism

Question 40

What are the psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Answer 40

1. Institutionalisation - quickly learn to conform to their social roles . Inmates therefore may become so accustomed they loose their autonomy and dk how to survive in the outside environment due to dependency culture . Could mention Zimbardo
2. Mental illness - some inmates can undergo psychological disturbance leading to anxiety , depression and even suicide
3. Brutalisation - prison acts as a “university for crime” it reinforces criminal lifestyle leading to higher recidivism. Talk about England and whales recidivism rates
4. Labelling - once lablled as a criminal even when released from prison there may be a loss of social contacts like reduced employability

Question 41

Ao3 psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Answer 41

:) a positive psychological effect is that prisons may provide an opportunity for training and treatment to offenders through education programmes whilst in prison. Increases their chances of finding employment. Reduces recidivism and increases Money to the economy

:( some prisoners may have had mental health issues before they committed a crime so there are issues of cause and effect when considering the psychological effects of custodial sentencing . It’s difficult to know whether mental health issues are due to prison environment or already part of the individual. Thus it’s an error to state mental health effects are due solely to prison environment.
Custodial sentencing can also be negative because there are alternative ways of dealing w the beh like community service

Question 42

What’s behaviour modification

Answer 42

An application of the behaviourist approach to treatment based on the idea of operant conditioning. Undesirable behaviours replaced with desirable thru the use of positive and negative reinforcement

Question 43

What is token economy

Answer 43

Offenders rewarded with tokens for displaying desirable behaviours while punished by removing tokens for displaying undesirable beh.
For token economy to work the system must be standardised and the un/ desirable must be made clear to all offenders and prison staff
Tokens = secondary reinforcer which can be used to gain rewards eg food (primary reinforcer)

Question 44

Ao3 for behaviour modification

Answer 44

:) token economy systems are easy to implement compared to other methods of rehabilitation, there’s no specialist training or expertise required as there would be for other forms of treatment like anger management. Making token economy a cost effective and easy way of improving prison life

:( can be unethical as it involves exchanging tokens for rewards and withholding these rewards could be immoral as your depriving prisoners of their human rights and needs. Eg food is a human right rather than privilege . Thus weakening token behaviour as a way to modify behaviour

Question 45

What is anger management

Answer 45

A form of CBT which is offered in prisons to identify triggers and implement cognitive techniques to enable offenders to deal peacefully with the situation whilst avoiding anger

Question 46

What are the three stages to anger management

Answer 46

1. Cognitive preparation- therapist helps offender recognise anger and specific triggers that precede their anger , may mean the offender reflects on their past experience of anger and triggers
2. Skill acquisition - techniques are learnt to reduce anger response . Cognitive skills : like positive self talk (I am calm)
   Physiological- methods of relaxation
3. Application practice- offenders given the opportunity to practice their new skills within a monitored environment using role play

The offenders would practice their new skills and make a diary of their progress for managing their situationa

Question 47

Ao3 to anger management

Answer 47

Adv - a strength of anger management is that it attempts to address the thoughts which underpin aggression not just superficial behaviour change . Anger management encourages offenders to learn new ways of managing their beh like positive talk leading to long term behaviour changes and lower lvls recidivism

Disadv - anger management programmes are expensive as it requires specialist therapists so some prisons can’t afford these costs, therefore producing lower rates of recidivism in research as not all prisons can afford this treatment. The application stage is also based on role play so it doesn’t cover all the possible situations a trigger can arise irl. Thus reducing the affectiveness of anger management

Question 48

What’s restorative justice

Answer 48

A system of dealing with criminal beh which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders thru reconciliation and collaboration with their victims . It gives them a voice to promote their healing process

Question 49

Restorative justice takes place in the form of

Answer 49

A supervised meeting with a trained mediator where the victim is encouraged to explain how the incident has affected and impacted their lives
The offender is give the opportunity to see the consequences of their actions including emotional distress from the victim

Question 50

What else can rj include a form of

Answer 50

A form of restitution like retuning stolen goods or reparation like painting over graffiti

Question 51

Ao3 of RJ

Answer 51

:) its a cost effective method , its claimed that reduced reoffending means £8 is saved for every £1 on the restorative procwss. Overall its effective than custodial sentencing, strengthening it as a form of justice

:( offenders may pretend to show remorse when they domt , some offenders may just be doing it to get a reduced sentence and aren’t genuine . This leads to lower recidivism rates and weakens restorative justice as a way of dealing with offending beh