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Relationships Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Darwin’s (1871) concept about sexual selection?

A

Selection of those characteristics that aid successful reproduction rather than survival

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2
Q

What is the basis of human reproductive behaviour and what is this?

A
  • Anisogamy
  • Refers to difference between male and female sex cells
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3
Q

Compare the characteristics of egg and sperm cells:

A
  • Egg: Large, static, significant investment of energy, produced at intervals for limited number of years
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4
Q

One consequence of anisogamy:

A

No shortage of fertile males but fertile females are a rarer resource

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5
Q

Intra-sexual selection:

A
  • Between sexes
  • Strategies that females use to select males and vice versa
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6
Q

5 male strategies for mating success:

A

1) Courtship rituals
2) Size
3) Sperm competition
4) Mate guarding
5) Sneak copulation

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7
Q

What is the purpose of courtship rituals?

A

Allows males to display genetic potential

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8
Q

How does size affect success of mating?

A

Demonstrates strength for success in competition against others

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9
Q

How does natural selection influence sperm competition?

A

Produces:
- large testicles
- bigger ejaculations
- faster swimming sperm

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10
Q

How does mate guarding work?

A
  • Males fear being cuckolded
  • Keep an eye on and close contact w/ female partners to prevent them mating with others
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11
Q

Cuckolded:

A

Anothed male gets their partner pregnant (having to spend resources raising another man’s child)

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12
Q

What did Buss (1993) say?

A
  • Men are fearful of partners being sexually unfaithful
  • Females worry about emotion unfaithfulness
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13
Q

Sneak copulation:

A

Males mate with other females (vice versa) to increase chances of reproductive success

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14
Q

How do women benefit from sneak copulation?

A

Increase why did genetic diversity of their children, which increases survival

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15
Q

3 female strategies for mating success:

A

1) Sexy sons hypothesis
2) Handicap hypothesis
3) Courtship

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16
Q

Sexy sons hypothesis:

A
  • Developed by Fisher (1930)
  • Females select attractive males so they’ll produce sons with same attractive features
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17
Q

Handicap hypothesis:

A
  • Zahavi (1975)
  • Females select males w/ handicaps like males who drink and take drugs
  • Because it shows they are able to handle it
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18
Q

How do females use courtship for mating success?

A
  • Use courtship to select males on basis of reproductive fitness
  • Increases chances of males not deserting them, as they invest resources
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19
Q

Intra-sexual selection:

A
  • Within each sex
  • Strategies between males to be the one selected (competition)
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20
Q

Compare the preferred strategy of females and males for selection:

A
  • Preferred strategy of males is quantity over quality as they have enough sperm but eggs are rare
  • Preferred strat for females is quality over quantity
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21
Q

What has this strategy given rise to and what does this mean?

A
  • Dimorphism
  • Males and females end up looking different because of intra-sexual selection
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22
Q

Give one example of dimorphism:

A

There is likely to be physical competition between males because larger males are more likely to win. However, females do not have this because they do not need to compete for reproductive rights

23
Q

What are the negative behavioural consequences of intra-sexual selection?

A

Males being more deceitful, intelligent and aggressive

24
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of explanations for partner preferences: (+1, -4)

A

+ Research support –> Clark and Hatfield (1989), Pawlowski and Dunbar (1999), Buss (1989)
- Assumes one strategy is adaptive for all
- Social and cultural influences have been underestimated
- Cannot explain partner preferences for homosexual persons
- Negative behavioural consequences

25
Q

Clark and Hatfield (1989):

A
  • Male and female psych students sent out to uni campus
  • Asked question ‘I have been noticing you around campus. I find you to be very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight?’
  • No female students agreed to this, whereas 75% of males did
  • Shows both genders have evolved diff strategies to ensure reproductive success
26
Q

Pawlowksi and Dunbar (1999):

A
  • Older women between 35 and 50 do not disclose their true age in personal ads
  • This is because men judge female partners on age, as it corresponds to fertility
27
Q

Buss (1989):

A
  • Survey of 10000 adults in 33 countries
  • Questions relating to variety of attributes predicted by evolutionary theory
  • Females placed greater value on resource-related characteristics
  • Males valued physical attractiveness and youth more
28
Q

Give one study that shows why evolutionary explanations are too reductionist:

A
  • Buss and Schmitt (2016)
  • Both males and females looking for long-term relationships look for partners that are loving, loyal and kind, which shows relationships are much more complex
29
Q

How have social and cultural influences been underestimated?

A

Social norms of behaviour develop much faster than evolution

30
Q

Give one study showing the changes in women’s mate preferences due to social norms:

A
  • Bereckzei et al (1997)
  • No longer rely on men being breadwinners
31
Q

Why can’t evolutionary theory explain homosexual mate preferences?

A

They are not looking for genetic fitness

32
Q

Give one study showing the difference between heterosexual and homosexual mate preferences:

A
  • Lawson et al (2014)
  • Looked at personal ads placed by hetero and homo individuals describing what they’re looking for in a partner
  • Not similar in choosing partners
33
Q

Self-disclosure:

A

Revealing personal info about yourself

34
Q

Whose and which theory explains self-disclosure as a factor affecting attraction?

A

Altman and Taylor’s (1973) social penetration theory

35
Q

What is social penetration theory?

A
  • Gradual process of revealing your inner self
  • Reciprocal exchange of info between intimate partners
  • As more info is shared, partners penetrate more deeply into each other’s lives
  • This encourages reciprocity
36
Q

What are the 2 elements of self-disclosure?

A
  • Breadth
  • Depth
37
Q

Reis and Shaver (1988):

A
  • There must be reciprocity in disclosure for a relationship to develop
  • Balance of self-disclosure increases intimacy of relationship
38
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of social penetration theory:

A

+ Research support –> Sprecher and Hendrick (2004), Sprecher et al (2013)
+ Practical value to improve communication in relationships –> Haas and Stafford (1998)
- A lot of research is correlational, not causational for satisfaction –> Sprecher and Hendrick (2004)
- Not true for all cultures that self-disclosure leads to more intimate relationships –> Nu Tang et al (2013)

39
Q

Sprecher and Hendrick (2004):

A
  • Studied heterosexual couples
  • Strong correlation between satisfaction and self-disclosure
40
Q

Sprecher et al (2013):

A

Confirmed reciprocity of self-disclosure as a factor helping relationships to be more satisfying

41
Q

Haas and Stafford (1998):

A
  • 57% of homosexual men and women said honest and open self-disclosure was main way they maintained and deepened their relationship
  • Less-skilled partners could use this to improve their own relationship
42
Q

Nu Tang et al (2013):

A
  • Reviewed research into sexual self-disclosure
  • Concluded US individualistic culture self-disclose more about sexual practices compared to Chinese collectivist cultures
  • Despite low levels of self-disclosure, levels of satisfaction were same as USA
43
Q

Physical attractiveness:

A

How appealing we find a person’s face

44
Q

Give one study showing why physical attractiveness is important in the formation of relationships and explain this:

A
  • Shackelford and Larsen (1997)
  • People with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive possibly because it is an honest sign of genetic fitness
45
Q

Who created the halo effect and what is it?

A
  • Dion et al (1972)
  • What is beautiful is good
  • Preconceived ideas about about personality traits attractive people have mean we assume they are also good
46
Q

Dion et al (1972):

A
  • Physically attractive people are consistently rated kind, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people
  • Self-fulfilling prophecy –> belief that physically attractive people are nice so we act positively towards them
47
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of halo effect: (+1, -1)

A

+ Research evidence –> Palmer and Peterson (2012), Cunningham et al (1995), Kim (1997)
- Conflicting research evidence

48
Q

Palmer and Peterson (2012):

A
  • Physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgable and competent than unattractive people
  • These assumptions persisted even when people knew these people actually has no particular expertise
49
Q

Cunningham et al (1995):

A

Female features of large eyes, small nose and prominent cheek bones were rated as physically attractive by white, Asian and Hispanic males

50
Q

Kim (1997):

A

USA and Korean students judged physically attractive people to be trustworthy, mature and friendly, but this was less evident for unattractive people

51
Q

Towhey’s study:

A
  • Asked male and female pps to rate how much they liked an individual based on a photo and some biological info
  • Also completed a MACHO scale measuring sexist attitudes and behaviours
  • Those who scored low on questionnaire did not value physical attractiveness much
52
Q

Matching hypothesis:

A

Belief that we don’t select the most attractive person as a prospective partner but instead are attracted to a person who approximately matches our physical attractiveness

53
Q

Give one study supporting the matching hypothesis and what did they suggest about relationships?

A
  • Walter and Walster (1969)
  • We look for partners similar to ourselves not only in physical attractiveness but also in terms of personality and intelligence
54
Q

Walster and Walster (1969) procedure:

A
  • 177 male and 170 female students from Uni of Minnesota
  • Fill in questionnaire about IQ and personality and were told they would be allocated an ideal partner for an evening date
  • Meanwhile 4 independent judges judge each person on their physical attractiveness

Psychology (25 decks)

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