Relationships

Question 1

What are the evolutionary explanations for partner preferences?

Answer 1

• According to evolutionary psychology, partner preferences are driven by sexual selection.
• This means males and females choose partners in order to maximise their chances for reproductive success.
• Those with traits that maximise reproductive success (such as strength or height) are more likely to pass on the genes responsible for their success.

Question 2

What is intra-sexual selection?

Answer 2

• Intra-sexual selection is when members of one sex (usually male) compete with one another for access to the other sex.
• This is because male reproductive organs recover quickly with little energy expenditure, suggesting a man’s best evolutionary strategy is to have as many partners as possible and compete with other males to present themselves as the most attractive male to fertile female partners.
• Furthermore, a man may engage in mate guarding, where they guard their female partner to prevent them mating with anyone else. Men are fearful of raising another man’s child (cuckholdry).

Question 3

What is inter-sexual selection?

Answer 3

• Inter-sexual selection is when members of one sex (usually female) choose from available prospective mates (usually male) according to attractiveness.
• This is because female reproductive organs are less plentiful and require far more energy to produce, therefore, women must be more selective when choosing a partner.
• They will typically choose a partner with desirable characteristics allowing the male partner to protect them and provide for their children.

Question 4

What are 2 strengths of evolutionary explanations for partner preferences?

Answer 4

• Buss (1989) conducted a study of 10000 adults in 33 countries and found that females reported valuing resource-based characteristics, whilst men valued good looks and preferred younger partners.
• Clark and Hattfield (1989) conducted a study where psychology students went up to members of the opposite sex and asked one of 3 questions. When asked to date, 50% of both genders said yes. When asked to go back to their apartment, 69% of men and 6% of women said yes. When asked to have sex, 75% of men and 0% of women said yes.

Question 5

What are 3 weaknesses of evolutionary explanations for partner preferences?

Answer 5

• The evolutionary approach is deterministic, suggesting that we have little free will in partner choice.
• The evolutionary approach is socially sensitive, as it promotes traditional sexist views. Women are more independent today, therefore they may not look for resourceful partners as much now, and availability of contraception means that evolutionary pressures are less relevant.
• Evolutionary explanations do not explain non-heterosexual relationships and cultural variations of relationships around the world, such as arranged marriages.

Question 6

What is self-disclosure and reciprocal self-disclosure?

Answer 6

• Self-disclosure is a central concept in social penetration theory proposed by Altman and Taylor (1973). This theory suggests that by gradually revealing emotions and experiences to their partner, couples gain a greater understanding of each other and display trust.
• The more trust someone has in their partner, the greater the self-disclosure. People may start by revealing superficial information like hobbies, and gradually reveal more details like difficult experiences. Self-disclosing too quickly may reduce attraction.
• Reciprocal self-disclosure refers to how people expect the same level of self-disclosure from others as they give.

Question 7

What are 3 strengths of self-disclosure theory?

Answer 7

• Altman and Taylor (1973) found that self-disclosure on the first date is innapropriate; the person self-disclosing was seen as maladjusted and unlikable.
• Tal-Or (2015) analysed reality TV shows like Big Brother and found that viewers did not like contestants who self-disclosed early on, they preferred the participants who self-disclosed gradually.
• Kito (2010) found self-disclosure was high in romantic hetersoexual relationships in Japanese and American high school students.

Question 8

What are 2 weaknesses of self-disclosure theory?

Answer 8

• Sprecher (2013) found that the level of self-disclosure recieved is more important than the amount, going against the idea of reciprocal self-discloure.
• Attraction to a partner is unlikely to be based on self-disclosure alone; other factors like physical attraction and complementarity of needs may be more important.

Question 9

What is the importance of physical attractiveness for men and women?

Answer 9

• Men place an importance on physical attractiveness when choosing a female partner in both the short-term and the long-term.
• Women place an importance on physical attractivness when choosing a male partner in the short-term and less in the long-term.
• What is considered to be physically attractive varies across culture and time.

Question 10

What is the halo effect?

Answer 10

• The halo effect is when the general impression of a person is incorrectly formed from one characteristic alone, usually their physical attractivenss.
• Physically attractive people are more often seen as sociable, optimistic, successful and trustworthy.
• People behave positively towards those who are physically attractive, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy where the physically attractive behaves positively because of the positive attention they recieve.

Question 11

What is a strength of the halo effect?

Answer 11

• Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable than unattractive people, which persisted even when the participants discovered the physically attractive people had no expertise in politics.

Question 12

What is a weakness of the halo effect?

Answer 12

• Towhey (1979) found that those with who scored higher on a questionnaire which measured sexist attitudes and behaviour were more influenced by physical attractiveness. Therefore, the influence of physical attractiveness may be moderated by other factors, such as personality.

Question 13

What is the matching hypothesis?

Answer 13

• The matching hypothesis theory states that individuals seek partners with the same social desirability as themselves.
• Physical attractiveness becomes the major determining factor, as it is an accessible way for each person to rate the other as a potential partner before forming a relationship.
• Most would prefer to form a relationship with someone who is physically attractive, but in order to avoid attraction, people will approach those with a similar level of attractiveness.

Question 14

What is a strength of the matching hypothesis?

Answer 14

• Fangold (1998) found carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies using real life couples. He found a strong positive correlation between the partners’ ratings of physical attractiveness, just as predicted by the matching hypothesis.

Question 15

What are 2 weaknesses of the matching hypothesis?

Answer 15

• Walster (1966) matched university students to a partner based on physical attractiveness, disguising it as random. When asked if the students would like to go on a second date, students expressed higher appreciation of their partner if they were attractive, regardless of their own level of attractiveness.
• If a physically attractive person form a relationship with an unattractive person, a rebalance of traits will occur, where the latter has other traits to make up for their lack of attractiveness.

Question 16

What is filter theory?

Answer 16

• Kerchoff and David (1962) proposed that we use filtering to reduce the field of available partners down to a field of desirable partners. There are three levels of filtering:
• Social demography: we screen people out based on age, sex, education, social background, etc. People are more attracted to those with similar backgrounds.
• Similarity in needs: we then choose people with similar attitudes to our own.
• Complementarity of needs: in the long term, we choose people who complement our own traits.

Question 17

What are 2 strengths of filter theory?

Answer 17

• Taylor (2010) found that 85% of Americans married within their own ethnic group. This supports social demography.
• Hoyle (1993) found that percieved attitude similarity can predict attraction more than actual attitude similarity.

Question 18

What are 3 weaknesses of filter theory?

Answer 18

• Levinger (1970) found no evidence of similarity of attitudes or complementarity of needs being important after conducting research on 330 couples.
• Online dating has caused a reduction in social demographic variables when we meet someone, and it is now easier to meet someone who may have a different ethnicity, social class or background.

Question 19

What is social exchange theory and comparison levels?

Answer 19

• Social exchange theory is the idea that relationships are like a business in a way: in a relationship we monitor the rewards we recieve, such as fun or attention and the costs we put in, such as time and emotional strain.
• The theory assumes that those who offer rewards are attractive and those who involve great costs are less attractive; mutually beneficial relationships succeed and imbalanced relationships fail.
• Comparison levels are when we compare our current relationship to previous relationships. Comparison level for alternatives are when we look around for a better deal if our current relationship is unsatisfactory.

Question 20

What are 3 strengths of social exchange theory?

Answer 20

• May account for individual differences in attraction, as different people percieve rewards and costs differently.
• Gottman (1992) found that individuals in unsuccessful marriages report a lack of positive behaviour exchanges with their partner and an excess of negative changes.
• Social Exchange Theory has practical applications: Jacobson’s (2000) integrated couples therapy helps partners to decrease negative exchanges and increase positive ones: 66% of couples reported significant improvements in their relationship after this.

Question 21

What are 3 weaknesses of social exchange theory?

Answer 21

• Moghaddam (1998) states that the social exchange theory is more applicable to individualistic cultures as opposed to collectivist cultures: individualistic cultures may percieve rewards as buying expensive presents, whereas collectivist cultures may percieve rewards as family values and compatability.
• Critics argue that people only monitor costs and rewards (and therefore comparison levels) when we are already dissatisfied in the relationship.
• Some relationships have little rewards and many costs, such as abusive relationships, and they still continue.

Question 22

What is equity theory?

Answer 22

• Equity theory states that in a relationship, each partner needs to experience a balance between their costs and rewards. Equity means fairness; an equitable relationship has a fair ratio of rewards and costs for each individual.
• If people over-benefit in a relationship (by receiving more rewards), they may feel guilt or pity, and if people under-benefit (by receiving less rewards), they may feel angry or sad.
• An imbalance of rewards can be tolerated if both parties accept the situation, such as if one partner loses their job and the other understands their situation.

Question 23

What are 2 strengths of equity theory?

Answer 23

• DeMaris (2007) studied 1500 couples as part of the US National Survey of Families and Households. He found that women under-benefitting in a relationship meant there was a high risk of divorce occuring.
• Brosnan (2003) found that female monkeys became angry if they were denied a reward for playing games with a researcher if they saw another monkey recieve the reward instead, suggesting that ideas of equity are rooted in our ancient origins.

Question 24

What are 3 weaknesses of equity theory?

Answer 24

• Equity theory is more applicable to individualistic cultures as opposed to collectivist cultures, as in collectivist cultures, family networks and values may be more important when maintaining a relationship, and relationships may be more successful due to cultural expectations and obligations rather than rewards and costs.
• Buunk (1996) found no association between equity in a relationship and future quality of a relationship, suggesting that just because a relationship is equitable does not mean it is immortal.
• Mills and Clark (1982) argued that it is not possible to assess equity in loving relationships, as rewards and costs are more emotional and psychological, and therefore cannot be easily quantified or measured. Measuring rewards and costs could diminish the quality of love in the relationship.

Question 25

What is Rusbult’s Investment Model?

Answer 25

• Rusbult’s investment model is is an extension of social exchange theory.
• This model states that committment is a key factor in sustaining a relationship, which in turn depends on satisfaction, comparison with possible alternatives and investment.
• The better the alternatives, the lower the satisfaction, but investments serve as a deterrent for leaving the relationship. Intrinsic investment refers to direct resources put into the relationship such as emotion or effort, and extrinsic effort refers to resources arising out of the relationship, such as children or possessions bought together.

Question 26

What are 4 strengths of Rusbult’s investment model?

Answer 26

• Van Lange (1997) found in students from Taiwan and the Netherlands that high commitment were related to high satisfaction and investment size and low quality of alternatives.
• The investment model may be able to help explain infidelity: which might occur when there are high qualities of alternatives and low satisfaction.
• It may also be able to help in explaining infedelity, as despite low satisfaction levels, investment may be too high.
• Rusbult found in participants in homosexual relationships to have all factors of the investment model remain important when looking at committment.

Question 27

What are 2 weaknesses of Rusbult’s investment model?

Answer 27

• It is difficult to measure factors of committment, satisfaction, investment and quality of alternatives. Rusbult responded to this criticism by constructing an investment model scale, however, these scales involve self-reports which may lead to social desirability bias.
• Lin (1995) found that investment models do not take into account gender differences that might exist when looking at relationships; Lin found that females reported higher satisfaction, poorer quality of alternatives, greater investments and stronger committment to relationships compared to males.

Question 28

What are the 4 phases in Duck’s model of relationship breakdown?

Answer 28

• Intra-psychic processes: The dissatisfied partner privately thinks about the problems they have identified in their relationship, possibly believing that they are underbenefitting. They may feel depressed and withdraw from social interactions with their partner.
• Dyadic processes: The dissatisfied partner communicates with the other and both may consider possible investments into the relationship. There may be reconciliation if the partner accepts the validity of the others’ claims. This may be where therapy occurs, or the breakdown process continues.
• Social processes: A break-up is made public to friends and family. Advice and support are presented and alliances are made. This may include criticising and/or scapegoating former partners. This may occur more often in younger people, as they are ‘testing the market’.
• Grave dressing processes: The need to mourn and justify our actions occur. An account is made of what the relationship was like and why it broke down, and partners begin their post-relationship lives, ensuring their social credit remains high. Different versions of the relationship may be given to different people.

Question 29

What are 2 strengths of Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown?

Answer 29

• It was expanded on in 2006 with a 5th phase known as the resurrection phase: this is when the person engages in personal growth and gets prepared for new romantic relationships.
• Social exchange theory supports Duck’s model, stating that a relationship with high costs and low rewards would begin to breakdown.

Question 30

What are 3 weaknesses of Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown?

Answer 30

• Akert (1998) argued that the role people played in deciding if a relationship should breakdown is a better predictor for how it goes down; those who did not initiate the breakdown were more miserable and depressed than those who initiated it, although the latter felt guiltier.
• Kassin (1996) found that women reported unhappiness and lack of emotional support for relationship breakdown, whilst men reported lack of sex or fun. Furthermore, women wished to stay friends, whilst men didn’t. This suggests that the breakdown model ignores gender differences.
• Duck’s model is overly simplistic; relationship breakdown is unpredictable and may not happen in this specific order.

Question 31

How is self-disclosure different in virtual relationships?

Answer 31

• Self-disclosure occurs much faster in virtual relationships.
• This is because of the anonymity associated with them.
• People hold off on disclosing personal information in in-person relationships out of fear of ridicule or rejection, however, there is less risk of this in virtual relationships.

Question 32

What is Walther’s hyperpersonal model?

Answer 32

• Walther’s (2011) hyperpersonal model states that as self-disclosure in virtual relationships happen quickeer than in face to face ones, virtual relationships quickly become more intense and intimate
• They may also end more quickly, as it is difficult to sustain the same level of intense self-disclosure for a long time.
• Selective-self presentation: virtual relationships may feel more intimate because it is easier to manipulate self-disclosure online, and people may edit their responses to present themselves in a more positive light.

Question 33

What is a strength of the hyperpersonal model?

Answer 33

• Whitty and Joinson (2009) found that in online discussion forums, questions and answers tend to be more direct and intimate than in face to face interactions, suggesting truth in the hyperpersonal model.

Question 34

What are 2 weaknesses of the hyperpersonal model?

Answer 34

• Although the hyperpersonal model suggests that relationships which begin online are more likely to end quickly, research has found that online relationships are more durable, as there is more open self-disclosure early on in the relationship.
• Self-disclosure varies depending on the online context; people may be self-disclosing more on gaming sites than dating sites, as dating sites lead to more likely face to face encounters in the future.

Question 35

What is Spoull and Kiesler’s reduced cue theory?

Answer 35

• Spoull and Kiesler (1986) suggested that self-disclosure in virtual relationships might be less honest than face to face ones.
• This is because in real life, we rely on subtle, non-verbal cues like vocal tone and facial expressions, which are absent in virtual relationships.
• This theory states that a reduction in non-verbal communcation leads to deindividuation, as it diminishes people’s feelings of individual identity, bringing on behaviours that people may typically restrict themselves from displaying, such as aggression.
• The consequence of displaying these behaviours is reduced self-disclosure, due to the fear of verbal aggression.

Question 36

What are 2 weaknesses of reduced cue theory?

Answer 36

• Today, face to face communication is present in online relationships such as through video calls, therefore making it similar to real life interactions.
• Walther and Tidwell (1995) argued that non-verbal behaviour is still present in virtual relationships: such as emoticons or timing of responses.

Question 37

What is gating in virtual relationships?

Answer 37

• In real life, attraction is dictated by appearance, mannerisms and factors such as age and ethnicity.
• Being online removes this ‘gate’ to interaction, creating more opportunities for shy or less attractive people to develop relationships.
• Gating means that people can establish virtual identities that they may not have been able to face to face.

Question 38

What are 3 strengths of gating in virtual relationships?

Answer 38

• Rosenfield and Thomas (2012) found that out of 4000 participants, 72% of those with internet access were married, compared to 36% of those without internet access. These suggest a virtual environment help establish and maintain romantic relationships.
• Zahoa et al (2008) found that the absence of gating has led to people creating online identities that is appreciated by others, enhancing their self-image as well as increasing the quality of their face to face relationships as well.
• Baker and Oswald (2010) asked 207 male and female participants to complete a questionnaire. They found that those who were the shyest also used the internet the most and had better friendship quality, implying that online communication helps people in overcoming their shyness.

Question 39

What are 2 weaknesses of gating in virtual relationships?

Answer 39

• People are involved in online and offline relationships each day, it is not an either/or situation. Because of this, there may be fewer differences between virtual relationships and face to face relationships than people seem to suggest.
• Research examining gating was conducted in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Technology is changing rapidly, and so is the nature of online relationships, therefore, these studies have low temporal validity.

Question 40

What is a parasocial relationship?

Answer 40

• A one-sided relationship.
• This could be with a prominent person in the community, a celebrity or a fictional character.
• The fan knows everything about the individual and feels very close to them, however, there is no chance of reciprocity.

Question 41

What are the 3 levels of parasocial relationships according to Giles and Maltby (2006)?

Answer 41

• Entertainment-Social: The least intense level of celebrity worship. Most people enter this stage. This is when celebrities are seen as a source for entertainment and a topic for light-hearted discussion/gossip.
• Intense-Personal: A deeper level of parasocial relationships. A person has a more intense relationship with a celebrity. They may see them as a soulmate and have an intense interest in their personal life, such as their dress sense or food choices.
• Borderline pathological: The most intense level of parasocial relationships. Celebrity worship is at an extreme, where the individual has obsessive fantasies about the celebrity, spends large amounts of money on merch and may even stalk them. The individual may also believe that their feelings would be reciprocated given they met the celebrity in person.

Question 42

What are 2 strengths of the levels of parasocial relationships theory?

Answer 42

• Schiappa et al (2007) found a positive correlation between the amount of TV participants watched and the degree to which they percieved the character as ‘real’, as well as their parasocial relationship.
• Research support claims that the attractiveness of a celebrity influenced the development of the three levels of parasocial relationships from members of the public.

Question 43

What are 2 weaknesses of the levels parasocial relationships theory?

Answer 43

• Educated invidivuals may percieve celebrities as less educated as themselves, and therefore are less likely to engage in parasocial relationships.
• Research into levels of parasocial relationships were conducted via questionnaires, which may be affected by social desirability bias, and therefore lack validity.

Question 44

What is the absorption addiction model?

Answer 44

• McCutcheon et al (2002) proposed the absorption addiction model to attempt to explain why people develop parasocial relationships.
• This model states that parasocial relationships makes up for defecits in an individual’s real life relationships. This includes allowing individuals to cope and escape from reality or develop a sense of personal identity and achieve a sense of fulfillment. The model is split into two parts:
• Absorption: Seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates one to focus all their attention towards the celebrity, therefore becoming pre-occupied in their existence and identifying with them.
• Addiction: The individual sustains their committment to the relationship by feeling a stronger and close involvement with the celebrity, leading to extreme behaviours and delusional thinking.

Question 45

What are 3 strengths of the absorption addiction model?

Answer 45

• Greenwood and Long (2009) found evidence to support that parasocial relationships are developed as a way of dealing with recent loss or lonliness.
• Stalkers have a history of failed sexual relationships; therefore this may be explained as a reaction to isolation and lonliness.
• Maltby et al (2005) found that teenage girls who engaged in parasocial relationships tended to have a poor body image, especially if they admired a celebrity’s physical appearance.

Question 46

What are 2 weaknesses of the absorption addiction model?

Answer 46

• Research into parasocial relationships is correlational, therefore, cause and effect cannot be clearly identified.
• The absorption addiction model may be better suited for describing levels of parasocial relationships as opposed to explaining how people develop these attitudes. This is because this model attempts to establish universal laws of behaviour, and therefore miss out into deep insights into the reasons of behaviour.

Question 47

How is Bowlby’s monotropic theory and maternal deprivation theory linked to parasocial relationships?

Answer 47

• Bowlby stated that failure to form a monotropic attachment before 2 years of age leads to long term impacts.
• This includes people becoming affectionless psychopaths, developing poor internal working models, delinquent behaviour, etc.
• Bowlby’s theories state that individuals who did not form a strong bond with a primary caregiver in early childhood will try to find attachment substitutes in adulthood. Parasocial relationships allow them to do this.

Question 48

How are the different types of attachment classified by Ainsworth linked to parasocial relationships?

Answer 48

• Ainsworth argued that those who were classified as insecure-resistant in childhood are more likely to form parasocial relationships, as they are afraid of the criticisms and rejection from real life relationships.
• This is because insecure-resistant children are very clingy to their mothers, and they show less explorative behaviours than children of other attachment styles, as they are afraid of leaving their parents.
• Hazan and Shaver (1987) argue that this behaviour translates into clingy and jealous behaviour, making it difficult for people to develop committed and long-lasting relationships.
• Therefore, parasocial relationships allows people with an insecure-resistant attachment style to engage in a fantasy about the perfect relationship without the risk of rejection.

Question 49

What are 3 strengths of attachment theory for relationships?

Answer 49

• Cole and Leets (1999) found that individuals with an insecure-resistant attachment style were more likely to engage in parasocial relationships with their favourite TV personality, whilst insecure-avoidant individuals were the least likely.
• Research has found that 63% of stalkers experienced a loss of a primary caregiver in childhood, usually from parental separation. 50% reported emotional, physical or sexual abuse from their primary caregivers. This supports the idea that disturbed attachment in childhood is related to extreme forms of parasocial relationships as an adult.
• A study found that adults with insecure attachment types had positive attitudes to obssesive behaviours and stalking. This suggests stalking is related to childhood attachment.

Question 50

What are 2 weaknesses of attachment theory for relationships?

Answer 50

• Parasocial relationships can be positive and not just about fulfilling attachment needs, such as allowing for a safe exploration of emotions.
• Research studies into the link between attachment type and parasocial relationships require participant memories of their early lives, which may be flawed as our memories of the past are not always accurate, reducing the validity of these studies.