RELATIONSHIPS

Question 1

Define natural selection

Answer 1

Suggests characteristics that confer a survival advantage are passed on to produce offspring with the best genes. This is because these characteristics are adaptive and therefore individuals with these characteristics are more likely to survive and be able to reproduce.

Question 2

Define sexual selection

Answer 2

Suggests that characteristics that confer a reproductive advantage are passed in to produce offspring with the best genes. This is effectively ‘survival of the sexiest’. In sexual selection, an individual’s survival is not at stake, but rather their ability to leave more descendants.

Question 3

What is human reproductive behaviour

Answer 3

Any behaviours that relate to opportunities to reproduce and therefore increase the survival changes of our genes

Question 4

Define anisogamy

Answer 4

The difference between male and female sex cells. This means that there will be more fertile men than women at any given time (sperm are continuously created in vast numbers whereas ova are produced for a limited number of fertile years). As such, men and women have different strategies to maximise reproductive success.

Question 5

What is inter-sexual selection and what gender uses this?

Answer 5

Where traits increase ‘attractiveness’ and/or induce members of the opposite sex to mate with them. Women evolve preferences for desirable qualities in potential mates to have the highest quality offspring.

Question 6

What is intra-sexual selection and what gender uses this?

Answer 6

Where traits allow an individual to compete with members of the same sex for access to mating opportunities. Men compete to be able to mate with the fertile women (they compete to be chosen)

Question 7

Based on anisogamy, why are women choosy about who they mate with?

Answer 7

Females make greater investment in terms of time, commitment and other resources before, during and after the birth of her offspring.

Question 8

What characteristics do women prefer in men?

Answer 8

A genetically fit partner who is able and willing to provide resources

Question 9

Based on anisogamy, why are men less choosy about who they mate with?

Answer 9

Men mate with as many fertile females as possible. This is because of the minimal energy required to produce sperm and the relative lack of post-coital responsibility.

Question 10

What characteristics do men prefer in women according to the sexual selection theory?

Answer 10

Youth and sensitivity to the indicators of youth and fertility as these are signs of reproductive value.

Question 11

How do preferences and reproductive behaviours get passed down according to the sexual selection theory

Answer 11

This results in an increased probability that they will reproduce and pass on their genes

Question 12

Give a piece of supporting evidence for sexual selection theory (C and H)

Answer 12

Clarke and Hatfield sent male and female psychology students across a uni campus. They approached other students individually with this question: ‘I have been noticing you around campus. I find you very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight?’ Not a single female student agreed to the request, whereas 75% of men did, immediately. This reflects sex differences predicted by anisogamy and supports the predictions derived from SS about ST mating strategies. Therefore, this supports the validity of the theory as an explanation of reproductive behaviour.

Question 13

Give a piece of supporting evidence for the sexual selection theory (ratio)

Answer 13

Singh studied the waist:hip ratio in females. He found that what matters in male preference is not female body size as such, but the ratio of waist to hip sizes. Up to a point, males generally find any waist and hip sizes attractive so long as the ratio of one to the other is around 0.7/. This combination of wider hips and narrower waist is attractive because it is an ‘honest signal’ that the women is fertile but not currently pregnant. This suggests that men have an innate adaptive mechanism to identify and prefer women with a low waist:hip ratio as the most attractive as its a sign of reproductive value, increasing their likelihood of reproducing. This supports the validity of the theory as an explanation of human reproductive behaviour.

Question 14

Give a weakness of the sexual selection theory of relationships

Answer 14

Partner preferences have undoubtedly been influenced by rapidly changing social norms of sexual behaviour. These develop faster than evolutionary timescales, which implies that they came around due to cultural factors. Women’s greater role in the workplace means that they are no longer dependent on men to prove for them. Mate preferences are therefore the outcome of a combination of evolutionary and cultural influences. Any theory that fails to consider both is therefore a limited explanation of human reproductive behaviour and so we can’t argue that the theory is completely valid.

Question 15

Give a three sentence summary of physical attractiveness theory

Answer 15

Physical attractiveness is thought to be an important factor in the formation of romantic relationships. It usually applies specifically to how appealing we find a person’s face. There exists an assumption that we seek to form relationships with the most attractive person available.

Question 16

What did Shackleford and Larsen find?

Answer 16

People with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive. This is because it may be an honest signal of genetic fitness.

Question 17

What does neotenous mean, why are they attractive?

Answer 17

Baby face features e.g., widely separated and large eyes, a delicate chin and a small nose. People are attracted to people with neotenous features because they trigger a protective or caring instinct.

Question 18

What is the physical attractiveness stereotype and how does it lead to the self fulfilling prophecy?

Answer 18

This suggests that attractive people are kind, strong, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people. This belief makes them even more attractive to us, so we behave positively towards them (self fulfilling prophecy)

Question 19

What is the halo effect?

Answer 19

One distinguishing feature of a person (their physical attractiveness in this case), disproportionately influences our judgements of their other attributes (their personality)

Question 20

What is the second theory of the physical attractiveness theory and what does it tell us about how we are attracted to people?

Answer 20

• Common sense tells us that we can’t all form relationships with the most attractive people. The matching hypothesis suggests that people are attracted to people who approximately ‘match’ us in physical attractiveness
• To do this, we must make a physical judgement about our ‘value’ to a potential partner
• Therefore, our choice of partner is a compromise between desiring the most physically attractive partner possible and avoiding being rejected by someone who is unlikely to consider us physically attractive.

Question 21

Give a piece of supporting evidence for physical attractiveness theory

Answer 21

Palmer and Peterson found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people. This halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when ppts knew that these ‘knowledgeable’ people had no particular expertise. The existence of the halo effect has been found to apply in many other areas of life too. This supports that physical attractiveness is an important factor in the formation of relationships. By being physically attractive, it seems that this distinguishing feature disproportionately influences voters’ judgements of the politicians; knowledge and competency. This has implications for the political process.

Question 22

Give a piece of supporting evidence for the matching hypothesis

Answer 22

Berscheid et al invited male and female ppts to a dance. They were rated for physical attractiveness by objective observers and also completed a questionnaire about themselves. They were then able to select a partner for the dance from people of varying degrees of attractiveness. Ppts tended to choose partners who matched them in physical attractiveness. This suggests that we tend to seek and choose partners whose attractiveness matches our own, acting as a compromise between personality and attractiveness, supporting that physical attractiveness in the form of the matching hypothesis is a valid explanation of attraction.

Question 23

Give a piece of undermining evidence for the matching hypothesis theory (and a strength of physical attractiveness)

Answer 23

Taylor et al studied the activity logs of a popular online dating website, therefore measuring people’s actual date choices rather than preferences. They found that online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were more physically attractive than them. This suggests that the matching hypothesis may not be a valid explanation of attraction as its central prediction (that people will be more attracted to and so select partners who ‘match’ them in physical attractiveness) is contradicted by these findings.

Question 24

Define filter theory

Answer 24

An explanation of relationship formation. It states that a series of different factors progressively reduces the range of available romantic partners to a much smaller pool of possibilities. The filters include social demography, similarity in attitudes and complementarity.

Question 25

Define field of availables (filter theory)

Answer 25

The partners that we see available to us after filtering

Question 26

Define field of desirables (filter theory)

Answer 26

Filtered down population to who is actually desired/attractive to us. Determined by social demography, similarity in attitude and complementarity.

Question 27

Define social demography (filter theory)

Answer 27

Demographics are features that describe populations, social demographics include geographical location and social class. Such factors filter out a large number of available partners. This means many relationships are formed between partners who share social demographic characteristics.

Question 28

Why does social demography make someone attractive

Answer 28

The key benefit of proximity is accessibility. Homogamy - you are more likely to form a relationship with someone who is socially or culturally similar. This is important at the start of attraction

Question 29

Define similarity in attitudes

Answer 29

We find partners who share our basic values attractive in the earlier stages of a relationship, so we tend to discount available individuals who differ markedly from us in their attitudes

Question 30

Outline how similarity in attitudes makes someone attractive

Answer 30

Partners will often share important beliefs and values, partly because the field of availables has already been narrowed by the first filter. SIA is important for couples who have been together for less than 18 months.
This encourages deeper communication, and promotes self-disclosure

Question 31

Define complementarity

Answer 31

Similarity becomes less important as a relationship develops and is replaced by a need for your partner to balance your traits with opposite ones of their own.

Question 32

Outline how complementarity leads to attraction

Answer 32

The need for complementarity is more important for longer term couples. At a later stage of a relationship, opposites attract.
Complementarity is attractive because it gives two romantic partners the feeling that together they form a whole, which adds depth to a relationship and makes it more likely to flourish.

Question 33

Give a piece of supporting evidence for filter theory of attraction (time)

Answer 33

Filter theory assumes that the key factors in a relationship change over time. There is research support for this which found that similarities of personality, interests and attitudes between partners are typical of the earliest stages of a relationship. Btw partners married for several years, complementary of needs is more important than similarity. This suggests that the theory has face validity as an explanation of attraction as it makes sense and agrees with most people’s experience of romantic relationships - attitude similarity is initially important but complementarity becomes important in attraction later on, in order for a relationship to develop.

Question 34

Give a weakness for the filter theory of attraction

Answer 34

The rise of online dating in recent years has changed the process of beginning a romantic relationship. It has reduced the importance of some social demographic variables. The internet and apps like Tinder have made meeting potential partners easier than ever, to the extent that we might well pursue a date with someone outside the usual demographic limits than would have applied 30 years ago. This suggests that the theory may lack temporal validity as it can’t explain the formation of all relationships over time. It may be a valid explanation of the formation of offline romantic relationships, but this may not generalise to relationships that begin online.

Question 35

Give a piece of undermining evidence for filter theory of attraction

Answer 35

Filter theory suggests that people are initially attracted to each other because they are similar. But there is evidence which suggests that this direction of causality is wrong. Longitudinal research has found that cohabiting partners become more similar in their emotional responses over time. Other research has found that romantic partners over time bring their attitudes into line with each others, again suggesting it is an effect of initial attraction rather than the cause. This suggests that the theory may not be internally valid as the findings of the research are not predicted by filter theory. It appears that the cause and effect may be the opposite way round with similarity an effect of initial attraction rather than the cause.

Question 36

Define self disclosure

Answer 36

Revealing personal information about yourself to another person

Question 37

What theory did Altman and Taylor propose?

Answer 37

Social penetration theory

Question 38

Outline social penetration theory in one sentence

Answer 38

The gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else by giving away your deepest thoughts and feelings.

Question 39

What is meant by reciprocal in self-disclosure theory?

Answer 39

• A reciprocal exchange is when one person discloses something, and the partner responds in a way that is rewarding and with their own intimate thoughts. This balance and deeper understanding increases feelings of intimacy and attraction.

Question 40

What are the two elements of self disclosure (SD theory)

Answer 40

• Breadth and depth
• Both begin narrow, but as the relationship develops, self disclosure becomes deeper, encompassing a wider range of topics
• Eventually, we are prepared to reveal intimate, high-risk information
• This leads to the greater understanding and trust, increasing feelings of intimacy and attraction

Question 41

Give a RWA for self-disclosure theory

Answer 41

This theory can be used to explain why online relationships may not succeed. The greater psychological comfort that comes with anonymity may lead them to reveal more informaiton about themselves. When people reveal more about themselves earlier than they would in a face-to-face interaction, relationships get very intense very quickly. However, because the underlying trust and true knowledge of the other person are not there to support the relationship, it becomes difficult to sustain. This supports the EV of the theory as it provides practical strategies for people who wish to have successful relationships that begin online - self-disclosures need to be reciprocal and increase slowly in breadth and depth to establish trust and intimacy and therefore attraction. It also explains why such relationships often do not succeed.

Question 42

Give a weakness of the supporting evidence for self-disclosure theory

Answer 42

Much self-disclosure research is correlational. Although it is usually assumed that greater self-disclosure creates more satisfaction, a correlation does not tell us if this is a valid conclusion to draw. It is possible that being in a happier relationship makes people disclose more. Or perhaps a third variable causes both self-disclosure and satisfaction/attraction e.g., the amount of time partners spend together. Therefore, from the research, we can’t strongly support the IV of the theory that SD causes attraction as SD may not directly cause attraction/satisfaction.

Question 43

Give a piece of supporting evidence for the self-disclosure theory of attraction

Answer 43

Sprecher and Hendrick studied heterosexual dating couples and found strong correlations btw several measures of satisfaction and SD. Therefore, men and women who used SD and believed their partners did likewise were more satisfied with and committed to their romantic relationship. This suggests that the theory is valid in that self-disclosures that are reciprocal do not seem to lead to more satisfying relationships, potentially because it increases trust and intimacy, implying that it increases attraction.

Question 44

What is a virtual relationship?

Answer 44

An online relationship. It includes a wide variety of electronic communication methods by which relationships can be formed and maintained e.g., email, instant messaging, chat rooms, texts and social networking sites.

Question 45

What are the two theories included in virtual relationships

Answer 45

• self-disclosure (reduced cues and hyperpersonal model)
• absence of gating

Question 46

Outline the role of reduced cues in how self disclosures affect virtual relationships

Answer 46

• Virtual relationships lack many of the cues we normally depend on e.g., facial expressions, tone of voice, appearance
• This leads to a reduced sense of individual identity (deindividuation) e.g., disinhibition (less likely to censor what we say), which leads to blunt and even aggressive communication
• Reluctance to self disclose (sharing a narrow breadth and depth of information, we feel it would be less likely to be reciprocated) and so people are less likely to want to initiate a relationship with someone as there is a lack of intimacy (don’t feel that we have developed a deeper understanding of each other)

Question 47

Outline the hyperpersonal model (how self disclosures affect virtual relationships)

Answer 47

• The anonymity online promotes self-disclosure (less accountable for behaviour)
• Self-disclosures happen earlier in relationships online, once they are established they are more intense and intimate
• The sender has more time to manipulate their online image (selective self presentation), so they can control what they disclose and the cues they send.
• They can manipulate self-disclosure to promote intimacy by presenting themselves in a positive and idealised way
• The receiver then gets a positive impression of the sender, so may give feedback (reciprocity), reinforcing the sender’s selective self presentation and encourages more disclosures and therefore a deeper understanding of each other as well as greater trust and intimacy.

Question 48

Outline absence of gating (only use when explicitly asked for it)

Answer 48

• A gate is any obstacle to the formation of a relationship (these are not present in virtual relationships)
• A relationship can develop to the point where self-disclosure becomes more frequent and deeper, meaning that the SD are more likely to be reciprocated, which then means that the breadth and depth of the disclosures will increase.
• Absence of gating refocuses attention on self-disclosure and away from more superficial features. This then promotes intimacy as they gain a deeper understanding of each other and trust.

Question 49

Give a weakness of both absence of gating and self-disclosure in virtual relationships

Answer 49

The hyperpersonal model and absence of gating both try to explain how there is more SD in virtual relationships than face-to-face ones because of features unique to online relationships. But Walther argued that these theories fail to take into account that almost all relationships are multimodal (i.e., we conduct them both online and offline rather than either/or. What we choose to disclose in virtual relationships is influenced by our offline interactions and vice versa. Whilst this doesn’t suggest that we should abandon both theories, it does suggest that to most comprehensively explain virtual relationships in social media, the theories may need to be combined with the impact of SD in face to face relationships. This would then more completely explain the role of SD in relationships.

Question 50

Give a weakness of reduced cues theory and the hyperpersonal model as explanations of SD in virtual relationships

Answer 50

The extent and depth of SD online depends on the type of communication. On social networking sites, people interacting generally have relationships in the offline world. People self-disclose more on Facebook for instance than they would on an e-survey, where they are reluctant to disclose information they consider to be private. Online dating often results in reduced self-disclosure because communications anticipate future meetings face to face in the offline world. This consideration generally doesn’t exist in chatrooms and gaming sites. The theories assume that all interactions online are the same rather than varied in these ways. As such, it is unlikely that either theory is a completely valid explanation of virtual relationships in social media.

Question 51

Give a strength of absence of gating in virtual relationships

Answer 51

McKenna and Bargh looked at online commuication use by lonely and socially anxious people. They found that such people were able to express their ‘true selves’ more than in face-to-face interactions. Of the romantic relationships that initially formed online, 71% survived more than 2 years. This is a higher proportion than for relationships formed in the offline world (49%). This supports that socially anxious people’s relationships do benefit from beginning online, presumably because the gating that obstructs face-to-face relationships is absent online (being shy isn’t shown on online relationships, which promotes self-disclosures which allows the relationship to progress), supporting the EV of the theory as it can support emotional wellbeing.

Question 52

Who proposed social exchange theory?

Answer 52

Thiabault and Kelly

Question 53

Give a sentence overview of social exchange theory

Answer 53

• Economic theory of relationships which considers how parties act out of self interest and exchange rewards and costs (subjective)

Question 54

Outline what is meant by the minimax principle in SET, and when a profit is yielded

Answer 54

• We try to minimise losses (costs) and maximise gains (rewards).
• A satisfying and committed relationship is maintained when rewards exceed costs (a profit is yielded)

Question 55

What are the two ways in which we measure profit in a romantic relationship (SET)

Answer 55

• Comparison Level
• Comparison Level for Alternatives

Question 56

What is meant by comparison level (SET)

Answer 56

• Amount of reward you believe you deserve to get from the current relationship based on experience of previous relationships and social norms. We consider a relationship worth pursing if our CL is high

Question 57

What is meant by comparison level of alternatives (SET)

Answer 57

• We compare the rewards and costs from the current relationship to other possible relationships and being alone. We will stay in a relationship as long as we believe it is more rewarding (or has fewer costs) than alternatives. Being in a satisfying relationship means that we may not even notice that alternatives are available.

Question 58

Give a piece of supporting evidence for social exchange theory as a theory of romantic relationships

Answer 58

Kurdek asked gay, lesbian and heterosexual couples to complete questionnaire measuring relationship commitment and SET variables. He found that those partners who were most committed also perceived the most rewards and fewest costs and viewed alternatives as relatively unattractive. More importantly, this was the first study to find that the main components of SET that predict commitment to the relationship are independent of each other. These findings match the predictions of SET, with more rewards and fewer costs being linked to greater commitment or the relationship. This suggests that factors that predict relationship satisfaction are the same for heterosexual and homosexual couples and therefore supports the external validity of the theory in predicting relationship satisfaction.

Question 59

Outline a weakness of social exchange theory (Clark and Mills)

Answer 59

• Clark and Mills argued that the theory fails to distinguish between two types of relationship. They suggest that exchange relationships do involve social exchange as SET predicts. However, communal relationships are characterised by the giving and receiving of rewards without keeping score of who is ahead and who is behind. If we felt the kind of exchange monitoring at the start of a promising relationship as SET predicts, we would probably question what kind of commitment our partner wanted. This suggests that SET is based on faulty assumptions and therefore may not be a valid explanation of most relationships.

Question 60

Give a weakness of social exchange theory (quantifying the concepts)

Answer 60

• The concepts of SET are difficult to quantify. Rewards and costs have been defined superficially in order to measure them. However, psychological rewards and costs are more difficult to define, especially aa they vary so much from one person to another. The concept of CL is particularly problematic. It is unclear what the values of CL and CLalt must be before dissatisfaction threatens a relationship. If we can’t measure the concepts in a valid and reliable way, we cannot provide strong support for the theory from the research and so it is difficult to establish the validity of the theory as an explanation of romantic relationships.

Question 61

Define the term ‘equity’ in equity theory

Answer 61

The distribution of rewards and costs is fair. It emphases the need to each partner to experience a balance between their costs/efforts and benefits/rewards. This leads to satisfaction

Question 62

How is equity theory an economic theory of relationships?

Answer 62

• Suggests that the exchange of rewards and costs are important in relationship satisfaction, but argues that equity is also important.

Question 63

Define overbenefits and underbenefits in equity theory

Answer 63

• Where there is a lack of equity, then one partner overbenefits and the other underbenefits from the relationship, and this is a recipe for dissatisfaction and unhappiness

Question 64

What are the consequences of inequity (equity theory)

Answer 64

• Problems arise when one partner puts a great deal into the relationship but gets little out of it
• A partner who perceives inequity will become distressed and dissatisfied with the relationship is this state of affairs continues for long enough
• The greater the perceived inequality, the greater the dissatisfaction - equity theory predicts a strong correlation between the two. This applies to both the overbenefitted and underbenefitted partner to the extent that they both perceive the inequity.

Question 65

What are the two main ways that inequity can be dealt with (equity theory)

Answer 65

• The ‘put upon’ partner will work hard to try to restore equity, as long as they believe it is possible to do so and the relationship is salvageable
• They will revise their perceptions of rewards and costs so that the relationship feels more equitable even if it’s not.

Question 66

Give a piece of supporting evidence for equity theory (Utne et al)

Answer 66

Utne et al carried out a survey of 118 recently married couples, measuring equity with two self-report scales. The ppts were aged between 16-45 years had been together more than 2 years before marrying. They found that couples who considered their relationship equitable were more satisfied than those who saw themselves as overbenefitting or underbenefitting. This suggests that equity is a major concern of romantic couples and is linked to satisfaction, supporting the theory of equity and implying it is a valid theory of romantic relationships.

Question 67

Give a piece of undermining evidence for equity theory (Berg and McQuinn)

Answer 67

Berg and McQuinn found that equity did not increase in their longitudinal study of dating couples. Additionally, they found that there was no difference in equity in relationships which had ended compared to those which continued. This undermines the validity of equity theory as equity does not seem to play the role in relationship dissatisfaction (as the relationships that continued/end do not seem to be linked to whether there is equity or not) and relationships do not seem to become more equitable over time as would be predicted by the theory.

Question 68

Give a piece of undermining evidence for equity theory (Clark and Mills)

Answer 68

It is important to distinguish between different types of relationship. Clark and Mill’s research strongly suggests that equity plays a central role in casual friendships, business/work relationships and acquaintanceships. However, the evidence that equity is important in romantic relationships is much more mixed. Many of these studies have questioned the assumptions and predictions of equity theory, such as the link between equity and satisfaction, as they apply to romantic relationships. This suggests that equity theory is based on faulty assumptions and therefore may not be a valid explanation of most relationships.

Question 69

Define commitment in Rustbult’s investment theory

Answer 69

• A romantic partner’s intention or desire to continue a relationship, reflecting a belief that the relationship has a viable long-term future

Question 70

Define satisfaction in Rustbult’s investment theory

Answer 70

The extent to which romantic partners feel the rewards of a relationship exceed the costs, which is measured by CL